The bamboo flutes found in Southeast Asia

Traditional Southeast Asian Bamboo Flutes: Studies on Origins and History

The study investigates the bamboo flutes found in Southeast Asia, as well as their history and origin. The earliest known extant bamboo flute, a chi, or ancient Chinese flute, from the Zhou Dynasty, discovered in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, dates from 433 BC. Southeast Asian bamboo flutes, diverse in shape and size, vary in the way musicians play them. During the ethnography, a qualitative study, the researcher utilizes an extensive literature review to explore the development of bamboo flutes in SEA and examines the link between these instruments and music, as well as traditions from and beyond Asia.

As the study focuses on the flutes from three main areas: Mainland SEA, Maritime SEA, and Pacific region of SEA, the researcher examines the origins of three kinds of flutes, the researcher compares traditional flutes from other cultures such as Chinese, Indian, Central Asian, Australian, Hawaiian, Saudi Arabian, Native Indians and African.

The cultural mapping of these flutes serves as a guide in following the routes of the flutes from one location to the other. To establish relationships, the researcher compares the musical traditions of bamboo flutes of Southeast Asian countries to each other, as well as how these flutes vary from one country to another vis-a-vis society and ethnomusicology.

Music-making serves as an integral part of human culture and society. Consequently, the study of the history of the Southeast Asian flute and its performance may significantly contribute to learning more about the development of this fascinating musical culture. It may also enhance the understanding of various cultures as it identifies and tracks links between different cultures. In this sense, the Southeast Asian bamboo flute constitutes a valuable index of cultural intermingling throughout time. The researcher notes that society, the context and historical influences affect the instrumental development of the flute.

TABLE OF CONENTS

ABSTRACT

List of Table and Figures

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Design of the Study

Research Problem

Objectives

Scope and Limitations

Significance of the Study

Research Methodology and Philosophy

CHAPTER II

Southeast Asia

Kinds of Flutes

The Bamboo Flutes from Southeast Asia Mainland

Hawaii

Musical Elements

Ensembles

CHAPTER III

Transverse, Side-blown Flutes

Vertically Blown Flutes

Nose Blown Flutes

Bamboo Flute Tradition vis-a-vis

Religion in SEA

Bamboo Flute Tradition vis-a-vis

Hinduism Influences in Bali, Malaysia, Borneo and Kalimanta

Muslim Influences in Southeast Asian Flutes

CHAPTER IV

Socio-economical Background of SEA

Development of Flutes

Transverse Flutes of Proto-Australoids

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

LIST of FIGURES

Figure 1.1: 18,000 BCE, SEA Map

Figure 1.2: Contemporary Map of Southeast Asia

Figure 1.3: 1st Century BC Silver Route: Asia and Europe

Figure 1.4: Hinduism before the Fourth Century in SEA

Figure 2.1: Southeast Asia Facts

Figure 2.2: Rice Paddy Field in the Lowland Philippines

Figure 2.3: Six Modern Types of Flutes

Figure 2.4: Kingflutes

Figure 2.5: Chinese Vertical Flutes

Figure 2.6: Filipino flutes

Figure 2.7: 10 Sao Truc Flutes

Figure 2.8: Ohe Hano Ihu Flute

Figure 3.1: Different Types of Vertical Flutes

Figure 3.2: Xiao Vertical Bamboo Flute

Figure 3.3: Lanoh Nose Flute and Fangufangu

Figure 3.4: Tongali Flute (Philippines Nose Flute

Figure 3.5: Map of Locations with Similar Flutes

Figure 3.6: Papua New Guinean Tribes

Figure 3.7: Indonesians of the Irian Jaya Province

Figure 3.8: Rukai tribe of Taiwan

Figure 3.9: Buffalo Flute with Buffalo-Horn Cone

Figure 3.10: Magindanaon Ring Flute Player

Figure 3.11: Old Yemeni Flautist

Figure 4.1: “Walking Stick Flute” Played by Mouth

Figure 4.2: “Walking Stick Flute” Played by Nose

Figure 4.3: Kmhum Higlanders With Transverse Nose Flutes

Table 1.1: Basic Human Needs and Cultural Responses

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

“When an instrument is introduced to a different geographic area, the new instrument that develops there generally retains some connection to its predecessor: A similar name or function, a shared physical characteristic, or an association with a particular social class”

(“Wind Instrument,” Dissemination Section, Â¶ 1).
Bamboo in Music

Jin, who began playing a bamboo instrument during the second grade, grew up with bamboos growing all around him. In the Web publication, “Kingflute,” Jin reports that when a child, his family lived in a bamboo house. He played with toys built of bamboo. He reports: “My mom used to cook ‘Labong; (bamboo shoots) for food which is particularly popular during rainy seasons in our province” (Bambooman, the Author and his passionâ€¦ Section, Â¶ 1). Today, Jin sleeps on a bamboo bed and owns a garden set constructed of bamboo.

The bamboo orchestra, “Pangkat Kawayan,” the music center across Jin’s street, mesmerized him, he said, when he, in the second grade, moved with his family to the city. “I remember listening to this bamboo orchestra practice every other afternoon,” Jin recounts, “and watch my sister Cora play “Bumbong” (bamboo horns). & #8230;the conductor, Mr. Toledo, gave me the chance to play bamboo bass” (Bambooman, the Author and his passionâ€¦ Section, Â¶ 3). At that moment, Jin began his quest to become a bamboo musician. He performed for individuals who served as head of states and prominent people in America, Australia, Japan, Hong Kong, and numerous other countries in a number of performing arts centers; continuing to play in this bamboo orchestra until he earned his college degree.

Any where Jin sees items made of bamboo, he stops to admire them. He particularly appreciates the musical sounds that evolve from bamboo. “Words can’t describe my admiration, love and dedication to bamboo,” Jin stresses. During this thesis, with an appreciation for bamboo similar to that Jin displays, the researcher examines traditional Southeast Asian bamboo flutes; simultaneously reflecting on their origins and history.

Some individuals commonly believe that bamboo flute traditions in Southeast Asia either originated in China or that indigenous people invented them. The earliest known extant bamboo flute, a chi, or ancient Chinese flute, from the Zhou Dynasty, discovered in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng, dates from 433 BC.

The Chinese transverse flute, Chi, a six-holed membrane bamboo flute, however, does not depict the most common type of flute found in Southeast Asia (SEA). Although some similarities exist between SEA flutes and Chinese flutes, this observation may be used to disprove or argue the claim that SEA flutes evolved purely from Chinese descent.

Southeast Asian bamboo flutes, diverse in shape and size, also vary in the way musicians play them. Rather than merely attributing this diversity solely to differences between tribes, one may further explore the development of bamboo flutes in this region through a more detailed examination of the link between these instruments and music, as well as traditions from and beyond Asia.

Some Chinese researchers assert that Chinese flutes may have evolved from of Indian provenance.

In fact, the kind of side-blown, or transverse, flutes musicians play in Southeast Asia have also been discovered in Africa, India, Saudi Arabia, and Central Asia, as well as throughout the Europe of the Roman Empire. This suggests that rather than originating in China or even in India, the transverse flute might have been adopted through the trade route of the Silk Road to Asia. In addition to these transverse flutes, Southeast Asians possessed the kind of long vertical flutes; similar to those found in Central Asia and Middle East.

A considerable amount of similarities exist between the vertical flutes of Southeast Asia and flutes from Muslim countries. This type of flute possibly came from Persians during the ninth century; during the religious migration to SEA. Likewise, the nose-blown flute culture, common to a number of traditional African tribes, may also be found in certain ethnic groups found in Taiwan, the Northern Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The diversity of playing styles noted in the various locations; those being transverse, vertical and nasal, reveals that the various performing behaviors of Southeast Asia may have not experienced a direct lineal descent from China. Instead, the various performing behaviors of Southeast Asia may have been adapted from the musical histories of a number of cultures throughout the centuries.

This thesis specifically contributes to significant research in this century; challenging commonly-held beliefs in the process, as it explores the multiple origins of three different styles of traditional bamboo flutes found in Southeast Asia. The data in this thesis draws on a diverse array of materials relating to flutes from a number of countries and regions, including China, India, Java and Bali of Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Borneo, Turkistan (Central Asia), Middle East, the Philippines, Australia, South Pacific and Oceania, Africa and Europe. Implementing this broad scope allows for a synthesis that enables the researcher and the reader to envision the eclectic cultural background informing the development of these instruments.

1.1. Design of the Study

The study investigates the bamboo flutes found in Southeast Asia, as well as their history and origin. The organization of the five chapters in the study includes:

Chapter I: Chapter I includes the design of the study, the study’s research problem and three research questions, study objectives, the scope and limitations of the study, significance of the study of DNA, research methodology and philosophy of the studies from different related literature.

Chapter II: During Chapter II, the researcher presents information to address the first research question; presented in the introduction for the thesis: What evidence points to the origin of flutes in SEA? During Chapter II, the researcher relates the kinds of flute in SEA that have been passed on from one generation to the next and their physical structure which attributes scale, sound, expressions, melody, and rhythm. In Chapter II, the researcher also discusses the studies on ethnic groups of SEA and their flutes, and additionally notes studies on history of geology and aboriginals’ migration map to provide information regarding the origin of these particular individuals and the kinds of flute they played. This chapter also includes relevant information regarding SEA.

Chapter III: In Chapter III, the researcher addresses the second research question of the study: What kinds of flutes and characteristics depict those flutes that may be found in SEA? During this chapter, the researcher also notes the physical comparisons of three kinds of flutes found in different cultures: 1) Side-blown flute; 2) vertically blown flute; 3) nose blown flute. In addition, this chapter includes information relating to the musical aspects and origins of these three flutes, as well as traces the history of the bamboo flute tradition vis-a-vis, the religions and their influence on the development of flutes; with their performance and practices.

Chapter IV: Chapter IV addresses research question 3: How may the tradition of flute playing in SEA be enmeshed with practices of a number of cultures? In this chapter, the researcher also examines certain aspects of SEA’s socio-economical background which may have affected the development of flutes. In addition, the researcher presents information relating to the history of trading and invasions of outsiders on SEA which influenced the culture and life styles; consequently determining various functions of flutes.

Chapter V: During Chapter V, the study’s conclusion chapter, the researcher summarizes findings of the research and poses recommendations for further and future studies on the topic of bamboo flutes.

The study focuses on the flutes from three main areas: Mainland SEA, Maritime SEA, and Pacific region of SEA. During the researcher’s examination of the origins of three kinds of flutes, the researcher compares traditional flutes from other cultures such as Chinese, Indian, Central Asian, Australian, Hawaiian, Saudi Arabian, Native Indians and African. The cultural mapping of these flutes serves as guide in following the routes of the flutes from one location to the other.

Even though flutes included in this research have been the focus of earlier studies, only a few of these studies, however, currently exist. To establish relationships, the researcher compares the musical traditions of bamboo flutes of Southeast Asian countries to each other, as well as how these flutes vary from one country to another vis-a-vis society and ethnomusicology. In the study, the researcher notes that society, the context and the historical influences are considered as factors affecting the instrumental development of the flute.

1.2 Research Problem

The study illustrates whether Southeast Asian flutes comprise engendered instruments of indigenous people or adopted cultural outcomes. During the research process, the antiquity of bamboo flutes, which encompasses vast areas of cultures and ethnic groups, posed particular problems for gathering data. As a result, this thesis covers the studies about SEA bamboo flutes and cultures. Specifically, the literature reviewed for this thesis addresses the following questions:

1. What evidence points to the origin of flutes in SEA?

2. What kinds of flutes and characteristics depict those flutes that may be found in SEA?

3. How may the tradition of flute playing in SEA be enmeshed with practices of a number of cultures?

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of the study include the following:

1. To recognize the kinds of bamboo flutes found in Southeast Asia;

2. To identify the characteristics of bamboo flutes in SEA to uncover the origins of the flutes;

3. To show the musicality and instrumentality of the bamboo flute in the of SEA;

4. To investigate the possible influences from different cultures through socio-economical interactions, invasions and religious movements;

5. To explore the possible origins related to the indigenous people’s migration through centuries.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

1.4.1 Type of Flutes:

Those who crafted the flutes often constructed them out of the materials readily found in the immediate surroundings. The tradition of making flutes, however, may be transported from one country to another. The study includes details regarding a variety of aspects relating the following three types of flutes; including their construction: Side-blown, vertically blown and nose blown.

The side-blown flute has a blown hole on the side. The blowing hole for this flute may be located either on center or near the end. The vertical flute, also called end-blown flutes, has a hole on the end. Both ends of flutes are opened and one of end is manipulated to create different sound in vertical flutes or end-blown flutes. The ends may all be opened, closed or opened on one side. The musician may play the nose blown flute vertically or sideways, but he uses his nose instead of his mouth to produce the sound. The nose flute may be transverse or vertical flutes, nevertheless the individual must blow this type flute by nose.

The Southeast Asian countries included in this thesis include the Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar. The researcher considers bamboo flutes found in Central Asia, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Europe and South America, similarly structured or blown, as part of the influences that brought about the flute’s existence in the SEA countries.

1.4.2 Historical Limitations

The researcher sets up chronological markers to compare the development of bamboo flutes in Southeast Asia. The first periodical section, set 50,000 years ago, denotes the time when the first kind of side blown flute might had been developed. The second consideration on time period reflects the movement of Austroasians to Southeast Asia and Oceanic nations. The researcher projects the next period as 1st Century BC when the massive trading occurred in Asia and Europe. The researcher also includes the 3rd Century, the era when musical development in Eastern Asia affected the musical development of Southeast Asian instruments in the study. The 14th Century European ventures to Southeast Asia, the researcher asserts, clearly showed the decline of interest in bamboo flutes. [Footnote or reference needed here]

1.4.3 Geology

The map of Ice-age, portrayed in Figures 1.1 illustrates the scope of study reveals possible geographical influence among cultural in neighboring countries. This map reflects the scientific research regarding how some of lands linked during the Ice-Age.

The Indonesian islands, as far east as Borneo and Bali, were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass identified as Sundaland. Palawan also comprised part of Sundaland, albeit, the remainder of the Philippine Islands fashioned one massive island which the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Srtait separated from the continent. As Australia and New Guinea connected, they formed Sahulland. Islands remained between Sundaland and Sahulland, Wallacea, nevertheless the number and width of water gaps between the two continents ranged significantly less.

Fig.1.1: 18,000 BCE, SEA Map (Ehlers and Gibbard).

The article, “Trade Routes between Europe and Asia during Antiquity,” explains that the trade routes, according to similar to the Internet in contemporary times, served as the ancient world’s communications highways. In addition to transporting goods and raw materials, individuals moving from one area to another to conduct businesses transported new inventions, artistic styles, languages, social customs, and religious beliefs. For instance, the Hellenistic styles the Romans popularized, as well as the sculptural styles of Gaul (modern-day France) and Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and northern India) reflect these trade connections.

Figure 1.2 portrays a contemporary map of SE Asia. Rivers in SE Asia, as rivers throughout the world, enable civilizations to transmit cultural components inside the continents. Crystallizations in SEA and in other countries may not always be peaceful.

Figure 1.2: Contemporary Map of Southeast Asia (History of SE Asia, p. *)

1.4.4 Socio-Economical Aspects:

During the first century, traders used trade routes primarily for transferring food items, raw materials, and extravagant products from areas with surpluses to other regions where these products were in short supply. Some countries, such as China, obtained monopolies as it supplied silk to West Asia and the Mediterranean world. South Asia similarly gained a measure of control as it sold spices to particular areas. Along the silk and spice routes, individuals transported goods to be traded over enormous distances overland by pack animals or on water by seagoing ships. The land and the water served as the primary means for the various ancient empires of the Old World to contact each other. The Arabs controlled the Incense Route, another vital trade route, as they used camel caravans to transport frankincense and myrrh from South Arabia.

During antiquity, long-distance trade greatly contributed to the cultural, religious, and artistic exchanges that transpired between the European and Asian primary civilization centers. In theory, by the start of the first century a.D., diplomats, merchants, and travelers could cross the ancient world from China and Japan in the east to Britain and Spain in the west. As cities along the trade routes provided services to merchants and operated as international marketplaces, many became rick. While policing the trade routes, few cities, including Palmyra and Petra, located on the outskirts of the Syrian Desert, primarily prospered as centers of trade for merchant caravans. Some cities became artistic and cultural centers, where individuals from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds met and mingle (*** need source). Figure 1.3 portrays the Silver Route utilized for trade by Asia and Europe during the first century.

Fig. 1.3: 1st Century BC Silver Route: Asia and Europe (*need source)

1.5 Religious Aspects

New religions that regularly accompanied the trading ventures that transpired in SE Asia frequently intertwined with social changes currently underway at that time. In a number of areas, the newly introduced religions filled the gaps the waning local Hindu-Buddhist establishments and beliefs left. By the mid-18th century, SEA had assumed a religious configuration similar to it contemporary one. “On the mainland, Therav-da Buddhism, which had been making inroads in Cambodia since the 11th century, underwent revitalization, the result especially of royal patronage and direct contact with Therav-da monasteries in Sri Lanka” (History of SE Asia, Â¶ 1). As the common idiom, along with a number of Therav-da precepts were known in Indianized societies, the reportedly gentle, subtle, seemingly silent revolution proved significant. In Ayutthaya, as well as in the other Tai kingdoms and in the Mon-Burman states, Therav-da Buddhism sustained the kingship while introducing a spirited scholarly control. This religion spread largely among the populace and in turn served as a vital to unite the people from Thailand and Myanmar socially and culturally; consequently contributing to major sense of the identity of the modern citizens in these regions.

1.5.1 Hinduism Influences

SEA owned a number of powerful Indian colonial empires from the 5th to the 13th century and consequently became active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. To the south, the Sri Vijava Empire and to the north the Khmer Empire vie for power. Langkasuks (-langkha Sanskrit sought to gain control of the “resplendent land” -sukkha of “bliss”).

This early Hindu kingdom in the Malay Penisula, along with the Old Kedah area, founded in the second century, reportedly reflects the earliest territorial footholds settlers founded on the Malay Peninsula. Malay legends, albeit argues that pioneers initially founded Langkasuka at Kedah; afterwards moving it to Pattani.

During the 5th-15th centuries under the Sailendras, a line of rulers, those in Sri Vijayan Empire, a maritime empire midpoint on Sumatra (island) in Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, however contributed to the decline of the Empire of Sri Vijaya. The Majapahit Empire, one of the final, supreme Hindu empires in Maritime SEA succeeded the Singhasari Empire.

K’ang T-ai and Chu Ying, two Chinese envoys, report that Mon-Khmer settlers, who spoke an Austro-Asiatic language, likely established Funan, a pre-Angkor Cambodian kingdom, located around the Mekong delta. The state purports that during the first century, after receiving directives in a dream to remove a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen, Soma.Kaundinya, an Indian Brahmin, established Funan. When Soma, the daughter of the king of the Nagas, married Kaundinya, their lineage supposedly became the royal dynasty of Funan. The myth possessed the advantage of providing the legitimacy of both an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras. At that time, the inhabitants of the region, held this kingdom in religious regard. The kingdom of Champa (or Lin-yi in Chinese records) controlled what currently constitutes south and central Vietnam from approximately 192 through 1697. India heavily influenced the culture and Hinduism, the dominant religion of the Cham people (*need source). Figure 1.4 relates Hinduism prior to the 4th Century.

Figure 1.4: Hinduism before the Fourth Century in SEA (*need source)

In the article, “Religion & Culture of the Malay Archipelago,” Lev Lafayette reports:

Historically, Ptolemy placed the Malay Peninsula on a map and referred to the Straits of Malacca. Chinese Buddhists and Indian Hindus established kingdoms in the area in the 2nd and 3rd centuries including Kedah, Patani on penisula Malaysia, Barus, Jambi and Palembang on Sumatra. There is also a peculiar claim by the Minangkabau of Sumatra who early the 16th century showed a gold cap to the Portuguese explorer and conqueror, Albuquerque, claiming that it belonged to Alexander the Great. If this sounds odd, a plausible Indo-Sycthian migration path has been mapped from Greek Bactria in western India, through the Khyber Pass to the Punjab, south to Shaka on the west coast of India and finally across to Pallava on the south-east coast and from there to Sumatra in the third century CE. In the fourth century in western Java the Hindu Tarumanagara kingdom established itself and remained in power until the seventh century before it was overtaken by the Srivijaya, a Vajrayana Buddhist kingdom established in Sumatra island in the seventh century and which at one stage exerted influence over most of the coastal regions of south-east Asia, southern Cambodia, and even contributing to the population of Madagascar. In central Java their allies were the Sailendra Mahayana Buddhist kingdom who covered their land with Buddhist monuments, including the world famous Borobudur, a pyramid consisting of six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, decorated with more than 2,500 panels and over 500 Buddha statues. (Lafayette, Religious and Cultural History Section, Â¶ 2)

1.6 Significance of the Study

As the study focuses on the people of SEA and the bamboo flutes found among the various ethnic groups in this area, it indicates whether or not these flutes are native to these countries. Knowing the evolution of these flutes, the researcher contends, enhances the understanding of the flutes, as well as their history. This understanding, in turn, may increase one’s appreciation of this musical instrument.

The (***) DNA mapping the researcher presents in this thesis will draw lines when referencing the migration SE Asian individuals involved in the bamboo flute’s evolution. The mapping of flutes found in the routes noted in the study suggests reasons indigenous people continue to own and play their bamboo flutes after hundreds of thousands of years. Exploring and comparing various conditions regarding how the SE Asian bamboo flutes have been made and utilized demonstrates the link among cultures; additionally confirming the study’s significance.

1.7 Research Methodology and Philosophy

Structural-Functional Analysis

The theoretical structure the researcher utilizes to analyze the data retrieved for this qualitative study relates to the structural-functional analysis Bronislaw Malinosk relates in his work related in the book, Scientific Theory and Other Essays. Malinoski defines functionalism as a clear understanding of the nature of cultural phenomena by answering the questions what and how before these are submitted to further speculative manipulations. He further explains that functionalism centered on the culture and the behavior of human (individual or group of people – society) being studied. Whatever the outcome of their action maybe or function, these could be traced to the culture (or nature) of the individual or society being studied (Malinowski). This type of analysis has three parts:

1. Input which answers the question “What is the nature?”

2. Process which answers the question “How can these facts be treated inductively so as to yield valid scientific generalizations?”

3. Output which determines the universal scheme applicable to all human cultures, that might be useful as a guide to field work and as a system of coordinates in comparative study, whether historical, evolutionary or merely aiming at the general laws of correspondence (Malinowski).

This type of analysis emphasizes that form is always determined by function to have a concept of connected items and introduce elements intrinsically related to each other. There are three dimensions of cultural process called forms, these are: artifacts, organized groups and symbolism. Form however is defined as the sociological reality that is a concrete type of behavior characteristic of any social relationship. In any specific culture, form is the manner in which it is done. Structural-Functionalism in essence refers to that implement (object) which has a purpose, a technique and it can always be referred to the organized group within which the technique is cultivated and embodied in a statement of technical rules (Malinowski). Table 1 portrays Malinoski’s outline of basic human needs and cultural responses:

Table 1: Basic Human Needs and Cultural Responses (Malinowski, Â¶ 3).

Basic Needs

Cultural Responses

1. Metabolism

1. Commissariat

2. Reproduction

2. Kinship

3. Bodily Comforts

3. Shelter

4. Safety

4. Protection

5. Movement

5. Activities

6. Growth

6. Training

7. Health

7. Hygiene

Ethnography

The researcher also draws from the ethnographic approach to qualitative research, which primarily evolves from the field of anthropology. “Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a great variety of practitioners and methods,” M.K. Trochim (Ethnography Section, Â¶ 1) explains in the Web article, “Research Methods Knowledge Base.” Ethnography emphasizes the study of an whole culture. Although the concept of culture initially linked to the idea of ethnicity and geographic location, it expanded to encompass practically any group or organization. In ethnography, although the researcher typically approaches research through participant observation as a part of field research, the researcher conducts the field research for the study in the realm of literature. During an ethnographic study, no limits of what the researcher observes or actual ending point may be predetermined.

For the next five chapters of this thesis, the researcher assessed more than 100 studies relating to the flute, South East Asia, *** need to insert more key words here.

Ultimately, the researcher retrieved approximately *** works to note in the literature the researcher reviews to answer the study’s research questions and fulfill the objectives for the thesis; noted earlier in this introductory chapter. Sources range from, but are not limited to, a number of books, including Personality in Adulthood: A Five-Factor Theory Perspective, by Robert R. Mccrae and Paul T. Costa to Web publications providing basic information, to university publications such as “Can You Shake it?” By Kuo-Huang Han, to studies such as “Kamayura Flute Music: A Study of Music as Meta Communication” by Jonathan Hill.

In Chapter II, the next chapter of this thesis, the researcher relates the kinds of flute in SEA and their physical structure which attributes scale, sound, expressions, melody, and rhythm. As noted at the start of this chapter, the literature reveals that the instrument introduced to a different geographic area, such as SEA, typically retains some link to the instrument, as in this thesis, the bamboo flute, to its forerunner. The review of the literature addressing the research questions in the study in the next chapter, as well as the chapters following Chapter II, encourages the researcher to, as Jin, to admire the bamboo flute.

CHAPTER II

FLUTES in SOUTHEAST ASIA

“Passed on from generation to generation it [the flute] developed into one of the most famous bamboo instruments availableâ€¦”

(Estrella, Â¶ 1).

Chapter II presents information to address the first research question presented in the introduction for the thesis: What evidence points to the origin of flutes in SEA? During Chapter II, the researcher relates the kinds of flute in SEA that have been passed on from one generation to the next and their physical structure which attributes scale, sound, expressions, melody, and rhythm. In Chapter II, the researcher also discusses the studies on ethnic groups of SEA and their flutes, as well as notes studies on history of geology and aboriginals’ migration map to provide information regarding the origin of these particular individuals and the kinds of flute they played. This chapter also includes relevant information regarding SEA.

2.1 Southeast Asia

2.1.1 the Land

Differentiating the geography of Southeast Asia, the researcher asserts, proves vital to understanding the development of flutes. As Vietnam and Burma are located in close proximity to each other, China profoundly influences these two countries. Southeast Asia, a part of Asia, consists of the countries geographically south of China, east of India, and north of Australia. The countries to the east of China possess the same kinds of vertical flutes. In the same vein, the people to the north of Australia have a similar culture which utilizes the playing of nose-blown flutes.

Made up of a central mainland, SEA’s island arcs and archipelagoes to the east, and southeast of it, include the land of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.

The maritime land consists of Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and to the north, Taiwan. Some countries in the same island arc have flutes which initially appeared in countries of Hindu and Muslim influences. The archipelago consisted of the territories of Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, East Timor, and most of Papua, New Guinea. The largest islands in the archipelago include New Guinea, Borneo, and Sumatra, and the heavily populated island of Java.

2.1.2 Terrain and Vegetation for Bamboo

Dr. Christopher R. Coggins, Assistant Professor of geography at Simon’s Rock College of Bard, Great Barrington, explains in the journal article, “Wildlife Conservation and Bamboo Management in China’s Southeast Uplands,” that Southeast China’s WuyiDaiyun Mountain Range, which consists of subtropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands, supply essential habitats for diverse wildlife. A field-based study of land use and habitat quality of three primary protected areas, the Meihuashan, Wuyishan, and Longxishan Nature Reserves, “shows that anthropogenic bamboo forests are among the least valuable habitats for wildlife but that, as the primary source of household income, bamboo monoculture is spreading rapidly and replacing habitats of greater ecological value” (Coggins, Â¶ 1). Successful habitat conservation, according to bamboo-management research in these three areas’ reserves, may in the end depend on land tenure systems being more equitable; improving cooperation between cottage industries, and implementing more diversification in local economies. Coggins further states:

Greater local control of forest resources in subtropical China is a legacy of centuries of wet-rice cultivation and settlement in marginal upland valleys, where villagers also managed bamboo stands, forests, and grasslands on surrounding slopes, ridges, and peaks. & #8230;the origin, diffusion, and impacts of village-level systems of resource control and household bamboo-management strategies are a critical local conservation issue. Unlike bamboo species that sustain the giant panda populations of western China, pure stands of mao bamboo, sometimes known as brush bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex-H. De Lahaie var. pubescens), are human formed, an anthropogenic vegetation type with great economic value but little value as a wildlife habitat. In economic terms mao bamboo is the most important of the 200 species of bamboo in China, with the most widespread distribution and the greatest total forest area. However, without intensive management by humans, which entails frequent clearing of surrounding vegetation, bamboo stands are quickly overtaken by more biologically diverse broadleaf and mixed forests. (Coggins, Â¶ 3)

Mao bamboo, one of the fastest-growing plants in the world, possesses immense strength and has served as the primary economic resource of the Meihuashan villages for centuries. Similar to numerous bamboo species in China, “mao bamboo has been used since prehistoric times for house construction, food, and an array of tools and household utensils that defies enumeration” Coggins, Regional Overviewâ€¦section, Â¶ 4). Mao bamboo paper bamboo product, exported through coastal cities in Fujian and Guangdong to SEA markets, from the Meihuashan region has been recognized for high-quality mao bamboo paper from the 1700s; lasting into the 1980s.

During the early spring, when mao bamboo shoots surface from the underground rhizomes, the culms may grow 10 centimeters a day. Within three and a half months, these bamboo reach their full height, which may surpass 10 meters. As rhizomes also spread rapidly, when villagers cultivating the bamboo remove underbrush prior to the shoots emerging, bamboo may spread into adjacent forest at rates up to 3-4 meters a year. As amboo reproduces asexually from rhizomes, consequently, “the most efficient method of propagation is to ensure that soil and vegetation conditions are optimal and simply to let genetically identical culms grow from the same rhizome until flowering occurs and the plant dies” (Coggins, Wildlife Habitatâ€¦section, Â¶ 10). This process, however, may require up to a century. Because shoots grow in the forest’s moist understory, mold and other diseases often threaten to destroy them. To counter this concern, villagers cut underbrush to the ground. This induces the areal spread of their groves, as well as increases the culms’ density of culms within them. During the spring period when bamboo-shoot develop, wild boar and macaques also pose a problem as they may cause serious depredation of the plant.

2.1.3 the People

Archaeological evidence permits researchers to trace proof that Southeast Asian archipelagos and islands have been populated. In 1891, the remains of a pithecanthropus or an anthropoid ape man, reportedly found in Central Java were recorded. A number of other remains similar to the first pithecanthropus were discovered in 1938 and 1941. Anthropologists assert these ancestors crafted chopping tools and other relevant items, found in Java, Malaya, Burma and north China. Anthropologists also discovered much later remains resembling modern homo sapiens in Central Java, around the areas of Solo. Discovery of remains of Austroloids, Negroids, Melanesoid and Austranesians after 1940s further indicate early human population in SEA.

The Proto-Australoids, ancient hunters; descendants of the first major wave of modern humans to leave Africa 100,000 years ago, characteristically have dark skin, wavy or curly black hair, long heads, and broad, flat noses. Researchers hypothesize that these individuals followed a coastal route through South Asia and into Southeast Asia. Some of the Proto-Australoids, who travelled to Australia, became known as the Australian Aborigines. As they continued to travel north via the coast, a number of the Proto-Australoids migrated to East Asia.

Discern which route the Proto-Australoids traveled proves difficult; nevertheless traces of their distinctive culture remain in the coastal areas. These areas include the Philippines, New Guinea, Melanesia, and Australia, as well as southern parts of China, such as Yunnan, Taiwan, and even southern India. In reference to their dark skin and short statures, some of the Australoids who traveled through the Philippine became known as Negritos,

2.1.4 Modern people

In the Web article, “Political and Cultural Geography of Southeast Asia,” Susan Russell, PhD, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, asserts the low population density challenged the leaders’ ability attract people to various population centers. “River valleys, deltas, and major maritime trading ports that were well-positioned along trading routes between India and China were the areas where early population centers, major kingdoms, and great temples first arose” (Russell, Important physicalâ€¦section, Â¶ 5). In Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, however, leaders and rulers specifically developed SE Asian maritime skills. The developed of these particular skills, coupled with rice agriculture contributed to two different kinds of classical SE Asian states developing. The economy of inland states depended on rice agriculture. Trade and raiding ventures, however, comprised the maritime states’ economy. Figure 2.1 depicts a number of significant, physical geographic points regarding to SEA.

Figure 2.1: Southeast Asia Facts (adapted from Russell, Important physicalâ€¦section, Â¶ 1-5).

2.1.5 Agriculture and Trade in SEA

Crops native to SEA include arrowroot (Maranta species), banana (Musa species), black pepper, clove (Syzygium aromaticum), citrus fruits, coconut (Arecaceae species), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), sugarcane (Saccharum species), taro (Araceae species), and yam (Dioscorea species). Research does not reveal much information, albeit, regarding the early history of these crops (SE Asia). Russell explains that SEA civilizations found that geographic locations located along coastal areas, deltas, rivers, proved suitable for intensive rice agriculture. Typically, the upland areas had “lower population densities, greater heterogeneity in languages, cultures, and ethnicity, greater political fragmentation, and slash burn cultivation of root or grain crops” (Russell, Upland andâ€¦section, Â¶ 2). Similar geographic contrasts exist in the characteristics of farmers living in the lowland areas compared to the highland areas.

The practice of slash and burn cultivation, or swidden agriculture, evolves from a system in which farmers cut and clear standing tropical forest prior to the start of the rainy season. Russell reports that farmers burn the cut area after the timber dries. In turn, this “leaves a thick layer of ash on the soil. When the ash is mixed with the soil, it provides important nutrients and phosphate that increase soil fertility and hence the productivity and size of crops” (Russell, Upland andâ€¦section, Â¶ 3). The rain, during the rainy season then further forces these nutrients into the soil. The farmer abandons the original plots for 10-15 years to enable the forest to grow back. Meantime, the farmer cuts down a fresh region of the forest after one to two years of cultivation.

Slash and burn cultivation, another agricultural practice in SEA, generally requires a bit of mobility of the population over a period of time. This requires a reasonably large area of land for each individual. In contrast, according to Russell, wet rice agriculture, which involves radically transforming the landscape, comprises a form of permanent agriculture. The algae that form in the water of the rice paddies provide nutrients; while farmers also build terraces and irrigation canals to regulate the waters’ flow from streams and rivers. This particular type rice agriculture proves more intensive; responding better to increased labor efforts. Hence, since in tropical lowland areas a farmer can get two seasons a year of rice without difficulty, wet rice was the support base for many Southeast Asian states” (Russell, Upland andâ€¦section, Â¶ 4). The lowland SEA regions typically involve much bigger areas of language similarity. They also have higher population densities and enhanced political integration forms than the upland areas.

Figure 2.2 shows a farmer working rice paddy field in the lowland Philippines; utilizing a water buffalo.

Figure 2.2: Rice Paddy Field in the Lowland Philippines (Russell, Upland andâ€¦section, Â¶ 4).

2.2 Kinds of Flutes

To play the flute, an aerophone, a person blows air across a sharp edge in the mouthpiece of the instrument. The article, “Flutes,” written by Catherine Schmidt-Jones, Rice University, explains that the flute family, a large family of instruments “includes widely-recognized instruments such as the orchestral flute and piccolo, panpipes, and recorders, as well as unusual instruments such as nose flutes and ocarinas” (Schmidt-Jones, Â¶ 1). Even though some people may not readily recognize a number of particular kinds of flutes, these instruments are likely the most common non-percussion instrument in music traditions throughout the world.

The spacing in the holes in early transverse flutes gives mean tone tuning. This tuning system, accepted in Europe from the 16th — 18th centuries, nevertheless made it intricate for the musician to play one instrument to well in more than one key. In addition, this factor restricted the flute’s usefulness to orchestra. Equal temperament, along with the key work on transverse flute improving, permitted the musician to play the flute equally well in all keys; in time becoming the accepted tuning standard. “At that point, the transverse flute, with its wider range of timbre, pitch, and dynamics, became more popular than the recorder” (Schmidt-Jones, a history andâ€¦Section, Â¶ 3). At one point in history, the flute eventually almost completely replaced the recorder. During the twentieth century, however, an interest in early music and early instruments occurred that helped spark a revival in the recorder.

Espie Estrella, a published song writer and member of the Nashville Songwriters Association International, notes that the flute constitutes one of the oldest man-made musical instruments. In the article, “Types of Flutes,” Estrella reports that in 1995, archaeologists discovered a flute in Eastern Europe, reportedly dating back approximatley 43,000 to 80,000 years-old, crafted of bone. Two primary categories of flute, according to Estrella, include the side-blown and the end-blown flutes. To play the side-blown flute, also known as a transverse flute, the musician holds the instrument horizontally or sideways. To play the end-blown flute, one blows the end of a tube or pipe. End-blown flutes are divided into two sub-categories:

Rim-blown Flutes – Also known as notched flutes, it is played by blowing across the top of a tube. The air is split because the tube has a notch or a sharp edge.

Duct Flutes – Also known as fipple flutes, is played by blowing air into a channel and the air travels across a sharp edge. (Estrella, Â¶ 1-3).

Estrella identifies six primary types of modern flutes; presented in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Six Modern Types of Flutes (adapted from Estrella, Â¶ 6-11).

2.2.1 Kingflute

Brazil, Europe, Mexico, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as a number of other countries, have their own version of bamboo flute. Among the various bamboo flutes, the “Shakuhachi” of Japan, the “Quenas” or “Kenas” of Peru, the Philippine “Tulali,” Bansuri of India, Chinese Dizi and D’Tzu flutes are considered some of the more famous. “Most of these bamboo flutes originated from natives who use it as part of their celebrations and religious festivities. Passed on from generation to generation it developed in to one of the most famous bamboo instruments available to everybody” (“Kingflute,” Â¶ 1). The Kingflute, another bamboo flute currently gaining popularity in Asia, as well as in other parts of the world is reportedly one of the best flutes available. Along with being versatile, players report this flute to be easy to use while it also produces quality sound. Figure 2.4 relates three Kingflute models; “a 10-inch flute in the natural standard key of C; a 14-inch model in key of B flat and an 18-inch flute in key of G” (“Kingflute,” Â¶ 3).

Figure 2.4: Kingflutes (Kingflute, p. 1).

2.2.2 End-blown Flute, suling

In time, one particular type of end-blown flute, the suling, became the most common form of flute found in the regions of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. In most Southeast Asian cultures, a suling is defined as an end-blown flute made of bamboo; closed with a node at the head and open at the bottom. The node is notched to form a small hole in the wall of the instrument.

In the Philippines, 63 different tribes have their own sulings; divided into five different kinds. The five types of suling, according to Taylor consist of:

1. Ring flute,

2. Lip-Valley Flute,

3. Nose Flute,

4. Whistle Flute, and

5. Chip-on ledge Flute.

The Ring flute matches the descriptions of other end-blown flutes in Southeast Asia.

In the flutes of the Philippines, a variety of sounds could be produced by changing the way air was blown into the flute heads. Finger holes were important for producing different kinds of scales. Most sulings have four, five or six finger holes. These flutes also follow the slendro scale of Cailendra, the most well-known pentatonic scale used in Bali; thus, a flute from the Philippines is justifiably called a suling slendro.

Commonly, most flutes held vertically in SEA were made slender and long. A suling gambuh, for example, native to Bali, is made long enough to touch the floor.

Various flutes of the Philippines are constructed with sharp edges on their ends; to secure the flute onto the ground.

In present-day Java and Bali, the suling comprises the name for the end-blown flute. The side-blown flute is known as a bangsi (wangsi), or bangsing. The term wen designates the type of flute found in Vedic scriptures, but it has the same description as the bangsi.

However, in particular parts of the archipelago, the term bangsi or bangsing was not limited to only side-blown flutes. It also referred to other kinds of wind instruments, such as bamboo end-blown flutes or clarinet-like instruments.

End-blown flutes in China may be categorized by the shape of the mouthpieces, and how the player manipulates the mouthpieces. Adolf Veenstra divides the Chinese end-blown flutes as follows according to their mouth shapes.

A. Plain and un-notched

B. Single notched U

C. Single notched V

D. Oblique angle cut

E. Double notched U

F. Double notched U. And V

G. V notched with flat binding forming a rudimentary languid

H. V notch with rudimentary plug in the form of some obstruction to divert the air stream upwards against the lip of the notch.

I. V notch with flat binding and rudimentary plug

J. Rudimentary plug with a hoe with a sharpened edge

K. The whistle head. (Veenstra, pp. 57-58).

Figure 2.5 shows the shapes of these Chinese vertical flutes.

Figure 2.5: Chinese Vertical Flutes (Veenstra, p. 58).

The Southern part of the Philippines has flutes similar to these Chinese flutes. Maceda details the Filipino flutes in Figure 2.6. Some of these flutes have common kinds of mouthpiece shapes as those of early Chinese flutes. The mouth-hole shapes in Filipino and Chinese flutes are comparable; the Filipino ring flute is similar to the shape of the one described in Veenstra’s description as G, as the lip-valley flute is to H, and the whistle flute is to K.

Figure 2.6 depicts a number of Filipino flutes.

Figure 2.6: Filipino flutes (Maceda, p. 197).

The chip-on-tube flute does not exist for Veenstra’s descriptions, nevertheless it appears more like another version of the whistle flute; with slight differences. The vertical position in which the performers holds the flutes require them to blow on one end of the pipe and use different devices or application of blowing techniques. The flutist changes different blowing techniques to direct the flow of the air against a sharp edge of the blowing hole using the devices or tools of a ring, the lower lip performance, a plug, and a chip on the tube blowing.

The ring around the blowing end of ring flutes allows for a small aperture in which air is blown and directed towards the sharpened edge of the blowing hole. The lip-valley flute or notch flute has a blowing hole shaped to conform to the contour of the lower lip of the performer. This plugs the blowing hole, leaving only a small passage between the lip and the sharp edge of the bamboo notch. The chip-on-ledge flute; with the concave form of the ledge, has an aperture which serves as a channel leading air to the blowing hole of the flute.

Flute playing techniques challenge the performers to create a certain mood or texture of sound. Most Chinese xios have a blowing hole with a “U” shape cut out from a node. Alternatively, other xios are completely cut off at the top. The flautist plays this instrument by covering the hole with the space between his chin and lips. The uniformity of the mouthpiece shapes of these flutes appear to indicate that the texture of sound was not particularly important to Chinese musical culture.

Lip valley flutes and ring flutes of Filipinos have long thin bodies which make winding melodies. These southern vertical flutes are so lengthy that performers have to learn back to reach the stops, located on the lower halves of the tube. In the North, however, lip-valley flutes are short. The Chinese flute, Qin xiao is narrower than the other two xiaos and may be closest to the Philippine sulings which have an extremely thin body. This flute is primarly used to accompany the qin, an ancient seven-string zither. Traditionally, xiaos have six finger holes like most of sulings. Contemporary xiaoss have eight holes.

Based upon the center hole, the flutes of SEA and China are similar in their concept of creating scales. They differ otherwise, however. Some mainland Southeast Asian flutes still use traditional Chinese scales, derived from the five-tone scales of China’s written legacies; the lu and huang chong in ancient Chinese annals, as well as oral tradition. Many tribal or language groups of people spread out in many parts of Southeast Asia still repeatedly use the oral tradition.

Most suling have four to six finger holes which are able to play the slendro scale of Cailendra. Performers in different regions play variations of the scale. The slendro scale in Java is quite homogynous from gamelan to gamelan; whereas in Bali each musical ensemble, even those from the same village, may tuned quite differently. The five pitches of the Filipino version are more or less equally spaced within the octave. The measurement proves extremely important in tuning as the “middle hole produces the octaves, and descending scales from this octave produce anhemitonic and hemitonic varieties.”

The ring flute, suling, is tuned to a hemitonic scale, and the notched flute, palendag is tuned anhemitonic scale, performed for different social functions.

The flutes of Mindano in hemitonic and anhemitonic scales are utilized for distinctive musical activities.

2.2.3 Flutes of East Malaysia

A. Sarawak, Sabah, the islands of Borneo:

The flutes discovered on the archipelagoes of SEA resemble those found in the Philippines, except that the sizes of some of the Pilipino flutes are much larger. As in the Philippines, the flute serves a vital role in the activities of the aborigines. Due to their high mountains and waterways created by heavy rainfall, these islands were rather isolated. In their isolated environment, the indigenous people created their own traditions, which include songs of life cycles, and rituals that pertained to religion, healing, agriculture, and hunting.

In Malaysia, performers play nose-blown flutes (selingut, selengut, turali, and sangui), significantly more often in Malaysia. The mouth-blown flutes, sharply shaved at the one end of the bamboo tube, sulings, are popular in the Sarawak, and Sabah regions. In the Philippines, both kinds of flutes are equally popular and played on special occasions.

Flutes are used as forms of entertainment and also as instruments to accompany grief in funereal rituals. Found in the Malayo-Polynesian cultures, large flutes known as banci, which could reach up to 2 meters in length, are utilized in rituals is to summon spirits. Small flutes known as encio, which have no finger holes, are employed for courting.

The songs the performers play on the flutes incorporate fourth and fifth intervals. This musical trait that may also be found among ethnic groups found in southern and southwestern China. The Guizhou minorities utilizing a scale consisting of sol, do, re, sol, do; while the Guangdong minorities use do, re, sol.

The performer emphasizes the interval of a fifth in many pieces played with nose-blown flutes, particuarly at the end of improvisatory melodic phrases.

To play soft melodic lines with improvisatory repeating notes, the performer plays a range of two octaves on the suling flute. These always end with fourth or fifth descending notes.

The descending fourth or fifth indicate the ending of every song, so it is important for ensemble playing.

B. Dream Song and Healing Sounds of the Rain-forest of Malaysia

The people of Malay play the transverse nose flute with one nostril depressed by the flute’s tip, while the air stream produced by the other nostril is concentrated across and into the flute.

With only three of the four holes made in the bamboo tube used for fingers, the performer’s over-blowing produces higher pitches.

The original population of the Malay Peninsula, composed of Malayo-Polynesian natives who married aborigines, totaled 55% of the population of Malaysia, and 33% Chinese, who came to the Malay Peninsula during the British colonial days in the 18th century.

The bamboo flute performance tradition that originated from the rain-forest culture is distinctively different from most of China’s flute performance culture, which historically has been more popular during royal ceremonies and religious rituals.

In some of these rituals, the “Dream Song” composers; musicians who receive their songs in their dreams in “response to personal and historical experiences,”

perform during ceremonies. These include ceremonies during the festivities of singing and trance-dancing performed for communities’ seasonal harvesting. Apart from rituals for the community, players also use the nose flute for courtship or expressions of love.

Semaians, one of the original aboriginal ethnic groups of Malaysians, are known as non-violent people who worship their environment. Roseman reports:

The nose flute is customarily played for songs about women, of courtship, and longing. The stories told by the playing of the nose flute concerns the relationships between women and men. So we (Temiar of Kelanton) follow along but the origin of the nose flute is for the Semai. It came here to us on the Berok River, we took it on. When we hear a beautiful dream song melody, we play it with the nose flute. That’s our tradition.” (Roseman, p. 16)

The Lanoh tribe of Malaya, a Negrito group of Southeast Asia, plays the transverse nose flute, an instrument with three stops. Both ends of this particular flute are closed. The body is engraved with seven bands of rings.

The Orang Asli, known as the Original people, live on the Malay Peninsula. This culture plays the transverse flute with either the mouth or nose. The uses of these flutes are similar to the flutes of Negrito groups of the Philippines. Players use some of these flutes, salet or nabad for magical invocations. Among the Senoi Temiar, albeit, the players use the panscol in courtship.

C. The Nusa Tenggara Timur and Sulawisi Highlanders of Indonesia

In the Indonesian province of Lesser Sundas, some lovers use the nose flute to court their mates. The “Love Song” (mating song) tradition existed here; with songs such as Lavitti being played by the nose flute known as a poghi.

Legend claims that the Torajans (Highlanders) came from the northern sea.

The highlanders celebrated festivities, such as harvest and thanksgiving with dancing; accompanied by drums and nose flutes called tulai. Playing at animistic rituals for ancestral worship depicts one of the most common uses for nose flutes. Another use, the ritual music and instruments for summoning sprits, disappeared after Christians arrived in the land during the 14th century.

2.2.4 Kmhmu Highlanders from Northern Indochina, Thailand, Vietnam, Yunnan, and Laos

Bamboo proves particularly vital for the development of aerophones, tools, and weapons in SEA. In time, the bamboo culture developed throughout mainland and islands of Southeast Asia. A Kmhmu native may easily identify more than 20 different species of bamboo by name. He would have been able to find the cephalostachyum virgatum; necessary to make the ‘tiaa.

This particular flute has long inter-nodes and thin walls.

The bamboo flutes serve as vital elements of Southeast Asian ensemble music because they create melodies that accompany the voices in the ensemble with textured sound. This enables the musicians utilize the instrument to communicate with each other. In an ensemble, the singers and instrumentalists alternate parts of music with spoken or sung verse. On the Global Music series CD, the orchestra plays a continuum between speech and the side-blown bamboo flute of the Muong La region. The engaging sound of the bamboo flute mimics the soft sounds of human speech. As they answered each other’s melodies, male Jaw harp players incorporated female flautists and their side-blown flutes into songs.

While playing the flute, the female would hum or whisper a few words or phrases. She would then briefly remove her lips from the aperture. She would then continue to utilize the body of the flute as a resonating chamber.

The flutes of mainland Southeast Asia share characteristics with Chinese flutes. Though Chinese flutes typically have more finger holes, the two cultures commonly use membranes and thumb holes. The side-blown flute, known as the toot, has openings at both ends and an aperture for the mouth, located a few centimeters from one of these ends. Two finger holes are located near the opposite end. The pil trill comprises a flute with six holes and one thumb hole. The ring-stop flute, a rather long side-blown flute with a bamboo stopper covering one of its holes, is 80cm long and 3cm in diameter. Both ends are open and it has an intermediary node about 10cm from the mouth end. A duct is cut straddling the node, and the pitch or beeswax is used to cover most of the opening so that the air passes through the short tube end. The toot teum flute is a ring-stop flute with 3 finger holes.

Among the Chinese, the ethnic minorities are the only ones who play the flutes with two to three holes. 2.3 the Bamboo Flutes from Southeast Asia Mainland

2.3.1 Vietnam

Sao Truc Viet Nam (Vietnam bamboo flute), a horizontal flute, has six holes, evenly distanced along the flute to give it the pentatonic scale. The pitches obtained, differ from those of the tempered scale. The Vietnamese F. note, for instance, sounds higher than the natural F, yet lower than the F#. While those who play the Vietnamese flute uses fingers to stop the holes and open them in various ways, the Western flutes use metal keys; consequently creating different effects. The disadvantage of the Vietnamese bamboo flute, however, is that that one cannot go too fast on the semitones; an action that would blur them with other notes. To counter this challenge, five secondary holes have been perforated to allow the expression of such subtleties. In the process, this allows musicians to play Western classical music, as well as Eastern tunes (“Musical Instruments of Vietnam”).

No record confirms the origin of the Sao Truc (bamboo flute), one of the oldest musical instruments in history. The fact that in each of the five continents in the world, practically all people possess their own flutes, however, is universally known. The Vietnamese flute, made of bamboo with small pipes, produces a sharp, high and sweet sound said to mimic a bird singing. The other flutes, with bigger pipe, resonate a lower bass sound. Usually, the Vietnamese flute, 1 cm — s1.5 cm diameter, with its mouth-hole bigger than its finger-holes, is round or oval. These flutes vary in length between 40 cm — 45 cm.

Among the 54 ethnic groups in Vietnam, the flute comprises a popular wind instrument as it produces a melodious, sentimental sound from its deep bass timbre. The tunes evolving from the flute’s may at times compliment a number of rural Vietnam scenes, such as a little boy lazily lying on a buffalo’s back; a young couple engaging in a rendezvous embraced by the evening’s moonlight; a kite billowing across the sky blue horizon (“Bamboo flute enchantsâ€¦”).

Historically, the flute has not only been used among the mainstream population, court troupes have also used them. The flute, considered among the most popular instruments in the eight-instrument categories is considered indispensable in traditional operetta, in Hue royal music, and also in the amateur music of South Vietnam.

In Western Highlanders and the northwestern or northernmost regions of SEA, flutes have one, three, four or five holes. The majority of players of flutes, horizontal and vertical (known as “tieu”), reportedly prefer the flute with six-finger holes (Ibid.).

The contemporary flute, a musical instrument played for solo or concert performances by traditional musical troupes, also serves as a musical instrument to accompany a person singing or reciting a poem. No evidence of kinds of nose flutes has been discovered to confirm these flutes were used in Maritime Southeast Asia. The Vietnam minority flute players play the kinds of nose flutes with three holes; similar to those in other regions where performers play nose flutes (Ibid.). Figure 2.8 portrays 10 Sao Truc Flute.

Figure 2.8: 10 Sao Truc Flutes (Bamboo fluteâ€¦, p. 1).

2.5.2 Indonesian Ring Flute, Suling

In the journal article, “Can You Shake it? The Angklung of Southeast Asia,” Professor Kuo-Huang Han, School of Music, Northern Illinois University, investigates a number of bamboo flutes found in SEA. Han explains that the most prominent flutes likely include:

1. “Indonesian ring flute, suling, and

2. The Thai recorder, khlui, both end-blown” (Han, p. 3).

Tribal people in the Philippines and Malaysia regularly play the nose flute. Bamboo panpipes are commonly played among the tribal people in the Philippines and bamboo mouth organs (with wooden or gourd chambers) among the hill tribes in mainland Southeast Asia. In Thailand and Laos, lowland people are noted for their long bamboo mouth organ, the khaen. Indonesians invented a bamboo “gong,” which involves the player blowing a smaller bamboo tube positioned inside a larger one (Han). In SEA, bamboo is used to craft three out of four musical instrument categories: These include:

1. Aerophones (winds),

2. chordophones (strings), and

3. idiophones (percussion without membrane) (Han, p. 2).

2.4 Hawaii

The ohe hano ihu, a three-holed nose flute originating in Hawaii, is crafted from a much wider diameter of bamboo than those found in SEA. Although capable of producing only one octave, the “beautiful” ohe hano ihu, as most nose flutes, was traditionally used between lovers. Individuals also played the ohe hano ihu, similar in construction to the nose flutes of other Pacific islands such as Tongo and the Marshall Islands to calm the nerves of a person being tattooed. The ohe hano ihu, reportedly being revived, has captured the renewed interest of numerous professional musicians (“Ohe Hano Ihu”). Figure 2.9 reveals details of the ohe hano ihu.

Figure 2.9: Ohe Hano Ihu Flute (“Ohe Hano Ihu,” p. 1).

2.5 Scales

The Magindanaon flute, uniquely crafted, plays pentatonic scales that differ from other suling with hemitonic, the pentatonic with semitones (c-e-f-g-b-c’).

The Torajans of Sulawesi also play melismatic melodies with semitons accompanying vocalist.

This melismatic melody with semitons and major thirds generally exists in Saudi Arabian music, too. In different a form, musicians have found, scales may create different feeling or moods in music. The most widely known form is anhemitonic (without semitones; e.g., c — d — f — g — a — c?), a structure utilized to imitate sound of nature. The hemitonic form (with semitones; e.g., c — e — f — g — b — c?), albeit, is used to reflect the feeling of sadness. Torajan use the long flute for funerals. Usually two flute players play together in unison; except during the part when melodies are embellished.

The ritual of playing long phrases without stops has dissipated in the Philippines.

2.6 Musical Elements

Java, developed from wayang kulit, has heavily influenced SE Asian music.

Until the 8th century, the people of Java from SEA most likely only knew how to play the ‘pelog’ scale, used for bamboo instruments and xylophones. At this point, the Cailendra dynasty introduced the “Slendro” to these individuals. The influence of the new dynasty reached Bali linked with “wayang purwa.” After this scale was established, layers utilized either system to tune flutes.

In the past, as in contemporary times, tuning systems proved significant to performance/s as they enabled flautists to play in sync with the other instruments in the ensemble.

On the Smithsonian Folkway CD [track 5], one may hear the toot, a side-blown flute of the Kmhmu Highlanders of Northern Indochina as it plays a scale of d, f, g, b-flat, d. The plaw toot flute can produce two octaves if overblown.

The phil on track 17 of the Smithsonian Folkway CD has a rather simple scale of e, g, a, c. All the toot flutes are capable of playing four notes, as are most three-finger-holed flutes. These flutes can also play scales that contain a minor third and a whole step.

2.7 Ensembles

Until the late 14th century, according to Majapahit Kraton’s description of the Hindu Javanese culture, musicians only played instruments in small ensembles. These groupings included “feminine” instruments including gambangs, genders, rebabs, suling-flutes, and “masculine” music with gongs, bonangs, and drums.

Musicians played “feminine” instruments for mourning. They played “masculine” instruments for cerebrations. Ensembles made for ceremonies use whoever is available and are assembled based upon the loudness of the instruments. Prior to the birth of the Gamelan ensemble, the musicians named their instrumental groups after their officers.

As it was expensive to gather these musicians, the local lords supported the court ceremonial music.

Conclusion

As this chapter presents information regarding SEA, it relates evidence pointing to the origin of flutes in SEA, passed on from generation to generation. The researcher also relates various types of flute used in SEA; noting the physical structure of a number of flutes which attributes scale, sound, expressions, melody, and rhythm. This chapter also recounts information regarding a number of ethnic groups of SEA and their flutes, as well as data relating history of geology and aboriginals’ migration map; examining the origin of these particular individuals and the kinds of flute they played.

Conclusion

During Chapter III, the researcher explores the kinds of flutes and the characteristics depicting those flutes that may be found in SEA; passed from generation to the next.

CHAPTER III

FLUTES in SOUTHEAST ASIA

“In Chinese writing, many musical instruments’ names are crowned with the character, ‘bamboo’ (zhu),

an indication of the material from which they were made”

(Han, Bamboo in Asia Section, Â¶ 5).

In this chapter, the researcher addresses the second research question of the study: What kinds of flutes and characteristics depict those flutes that may be found in SEA? During this chapter, the researcher also notes the physical comparisons of three kinds of flutes found in different cultures: 1) Side-blown flute; 2) vertically blown flute; 3) nose blown flute. In addition, this chapter includes information relating to the musical aspects and origins of these three flutes, as well as traces the history of the bamboo flute tradition vis-a-vis, the religions and their influence on the development of flutes; with their performance and practices.

3.1 Transverse, Side-blown Flutes

Research reveals that although explorers discovered end-blown flutes to be more common in the regions of SEA during the earlier centuries, transverse flutes ultimately became the most popular type flute. Some proofs also confirm the existence of transverse flues in early centuries in Java. Transverse flutes were constructed more than end-blown flute-like instruments in central Java during the 9th century, the Borobudur monument reveals.

J. Th. Mall’s edition of the Chinese Chronicles differentiates the flute of the Borobudur monument by calling it ‘ti’ (di), its Chinese name. Notably, it is not called a ‘siao’ (xiao), another Chinese word which means end-blown flute. To further confirm the Javanese preference to play the flute, historical records also mention that the Javanese musicians played it [the musical instrument]; held “wang,” which means side.

As further evidence to this factor, Groeneveldt found a description of musicians playing transverse flutes, drums and wooden slabs in the 489th Book of Chronicles; belonging to the second Sung Dynasty, which ruled from 906 to 1279 a.D.

The transverse flutes commonly used for various court ceremonies in Indonesia during the 9th century have since disappeared from Central Java.

Two kinds of the transverse flute, described as flute with mouth hole on the side, survived in SEA through centuries. Some vertical flutes may be held cross way; however these flutes are vertical flutes if the blown holes are located on the end of the flutes. The European six- holed flutes with or without a thumb hole and the Chinese bamboo flutes with a membrane hole in the mainland of Southeast Asia depict *** flutes.

The traditional flutes of SEA, from here on are denoted as being made of bamboo; hollowed out to make a singularly tube instrument without mouthpieces or reeds. Much variety, exists in the SEA flute, particularly in terms of the location of the mouth holes, number of finger holes, sizes, and shapes. However, the SEA flute may be further sub-categorized into the following three types, dependent on how the flute was played:

1. Side-blown,

2. end-blown, and

3. nose-blown.

The side-blown flutes may be described as transverse or cross flutes. End-blown flutes are also more frequently named as vertical flutes. As these sub-groupings were the most common to the Southeast Asian expanse, they merit consideration. Although nose-blown flutes comprise a category of their own, they could also be considered as transverse or vertical flutes. When the musician plays the flute transversely; utilizing either side or end nostril holes, it is considered a transverse nose flute.

In each known culture, evidence confirms that musicians have played some kind of vertical flute in the culture’s musical history. A number of studies on the vertical flute in China, Central Asia, Islamic cultures, and the Arizona Indians recount their evolution in various parts of Asia. Although examining the history of Chinese flutes enhances the understanding the general popularity of vertical flutes, the flutes discovered in SEA reveal that the Hindu and Islamic cultures also influenced their rise in popularity.

3.1.1Chinese Transverse Flutes

The transverse flutes of mainland South East Asia originate from both India and China. The transverse flute of Vietnam, the sdo, reveals influence from early versions of Chinese flutes. This early version of the Chinese transverse flute evolves from the Chou Dynasty of the first millennium. The chi, a court instrument, was comparatively short; with a large diameter, and had a blow-hole located on the side of the tube either near one end or directly in the middle of the instrument.

During the Han Dynasty, SE Asian musicians imported the heng-chui, which literally translates as transverse flute, from His Yu, located in the contemporary Sinkiang Province of China.

Chinese music, particularly its court ritual music, influenced Japan and Korean music more than any other Southeast Asian country during the latter half of the *** which one? century.

China’s adoption of flutes from Europe most likely began in 14th century. Matteo Ricci introduced European music and instruments to the Ming court in C.1600. Likewise, the Portuguese, Thomas Pereira from 1645-1708 and the Italian, Teodorico Pedrini from 1640-1746 may have similarly imported music and instruments for the Quing Dynasty and the court of the Kangxi emperor, respectively. Joseph-Marie Amiot may depict also another possible source, as he worked for the Qianlong emperor in 1779 a.D.

3.1.2 Southeast Asian Flutes

Compared to Chinese transverse flutes with membrane holes as a defining trait, Southeast Asian flutes have rather simple structures. Chinese transverse flutes experienced numerous major transformations throughout the centuries. Today, the di, a bamboo transverse flute, has six-finger holes, a mouth-hole, a membrane hole, and two auxiliary tone holes. On the underside, the di has two tuning holes; also decorative in nature. The complex structure of the Chinese di suggests it may have been constructed after the Eastern European tradition. The flutes of SEA, however, did not transform in the same way as the flutes of the Chinese. After the 14th century, Southeast Asian flutes transverse flutes appeared more like European flutes.

Transverse flutes of SEA additionally share a number of characteristics of the flutes of India. During the second century B.C., some transverse flutes, along with early Hinduism from India, arrived on the main lands of Southeast Asia. The records of Chinese pyu musicians, circa 800 CE, indicate that the Burmese used to play six-holed flute from India.

Most Southeast Asian cross flutes have six holes, except for the nose-blown flutes. Likewise, the Indian transverse flute, the bansuri, has six finger holes and does not have a membrane hole. The southern Indian flute, venu, has seven finger holes.

Researchers assert that the flutes the Southeast Asians played were imported from India. Both the SE Asian and the Indian cultures used these flutes for military purposes and both, unlike the most well-known “di-dze” flutes of China, do not feature membranes. Stephen Jones explains in the article, “Source and Stream: Early Music and Living Traditions in China,” that South East Asian players actively sought out concepts and practices that enhanced religious and social practices. Chinese and other Buddhist devotees, from throughout Asia in the 7th century, regularly visited Palembang in southern Sumatra to study the doctrines and to copy the cultural marvels of Java. Both Chinese and Indians reportedly admired the beauty of the Borobudur of the ?ailendra dynasty in Java, the temples of the Burman dynastic capital of Pagan, and the monuments constructed at Angkor during the Khmer Empire in Cambodia.

By this time in history, these cultures had already engraved the transverse flutes on their monuments.

When other cultures more readily accepted transverse flutes, Southeast Asians only kept end-blown flutes. They did, albeit, remain open to the influence of other cultures.

In fact, transverse flutes disappeared from the lands of SEA after the 10th century, except in the countries China continued to heavily influence.

3.2 Vertically Blown Flutes

Vertically blown flutes, normally played by an individual positioned in an upright stance, have three distinct designs. The first design depicts a rim-blown flute, while the second one depicts a transversely blown flute. The final portrays the tubular duct flute. In the Web article “The Unusual Sounds of the Vertical Flute,” Victor Epand, an expert consultant, explains that although “these three different types are referred to as a vertical flute; the rim-blown flute is more readily recognized as a vertical flute” (Epand, Â¶ 1). Researchers have been unable to determine the exact date or time period when vertical flutes were invented or initially created, nevertheless they contend these instruments been played for hundreds of years.

Unlike other flutes, the vertical flute does not appear to have a specific reason for its creation. As musicians play the majority of flutes horizontally, the fact that they play the vertical flute in the upright position contributes to its uniqueness. Older versions of vertical flutes had tubes that decreased in size, the top part being larger part and the bottom part smaller. Typically, most vertical flutes have six holes, normally at the top of the flute. Epand purports that “unlike the recorder, & #8230;there is no hole on the back of the flute for the thumb to cover” (Â¶ 4). Playing a vertical flute proves to be a positive practice for the person beginning to learn to play a wind instrument as it teaches him the basics of how to play wind instruments.

3.2.1 Characteristics of Vertical Flutes

Vertical flues typically have a barrel-shaped hollow tube, with one end being open; while the other end may possibly be closed, or depending on the type flute, it may be open,. Meki Nzewi explains in the book, “A contemporary study of musical arts: Informed by African indigenous knowledge systems, Volume 1”: “On the body of the tube, an embouchure (or lip hole or lip rest) and finger holes are bored” (Nzewi, p. 98). Flutes may be crafted from a number of various types of materials. The material, for example, may be bamboo, bones, corn stalk, metal or even wood. Even though some vertical flutes may be made from two or more pieces, they are typically crafted into only one piece. The vertical flutes with more than one piece normally have a flared bell at the bottom end of the flute.

A notched, vertical wooden flute (approximately 20 cm or 8 inches long) Nzewi further clarifies, has an embouchure carved at the top of the larger end of the tube. “Two extra holes are bored across a bulge below the embouchure in order to provide two finger holes. The bottom opening of the hole through the wooden tube is the third finger hole” (Nzewi, p. 98). Additionally, according to Nzewi:

In vertical bamboo reed or bone flutes the embouchure may be notched at the top of one end of the tube. Hence they are known as end-blown flutes. As many finger holes as are desired in a culture are bored in a line or staggered on the body of the tube. Lateral bamboo tubes have one closed end. That is, the interesting tissue at the end node is not bored through. A round or rectangular embouchure is cut or bored near the closed end. This species is known as the side-blown flute. Finger holes are provided down the length of the tube towards the free, open end. Tin flutes or penny whistles are more recent, vertical flutes fabricated with tin sheets in imitation of classical recorders. An ocarina is a round fruit or clay shell with a lip hole and one or two finger holes. (Nzewi, p. 98)

Figure 3.1 depicts several varieties of vertical flutes.

Figure 3.1: Different Types of Vertical Flutes (adapted from Nzewi, p. 98).

The recorder depicts one contemporary classical equivalent of the vertical flute. The European classical, transverse flute, the concert flute constructed of metal or wood. In conjunction with the finger holes, as it has extra keys attached to the tube, the musician may possibly produce a wide range of notes on concert flutes. The concert flute is generally made in three sections that fit one into the. The European classical flute, the wooden species school bands use, constitutes the one-piece flute variety (Nzewi).

3.2.2 Xiao Bamboo Vertical Flute

The article, “Vertical bamboo flute ‘Xiao’,” published by the Council for Hakka Affairs Executive Yuan, Republic of China (Taiwan), purports that the Xiao vertical bamboo flute, also called the “Dongxiao,” depicts a vertical wind instrument. When the musician blows into this flute, made of hollow bamboo, and the mouthpiece is at the rim of the upper end, the instrument produces the sound. Five holes at the front in the middle and the sound-exit hole, as well as a sound-aid hole, adjust or amplify the sound. The caliber for the Nanguan Dongxiao is almost two centimeters, while the pipe must have “10 eyes and 9 sections” (“Vertical bamboo fluteâ€¦,” Â¶ 1). Standards set for this particular flute prove to be stringent, as its length is approximately 54.5 centimeters.

Counting from bottom to top at the third section of the Nanguan Dongxiao, two holes, known as “phoenix eyes,”are located. In addition, each of the fifth and sixth sections has two holes. A hole is also located in the front and in the back of the seventh section. The soft, graceful sound of the Xiao proves to be “perfect” for sad, peaceful, sentimental melodies. Its volume, albeit is not strong and portrays a restricted range. As this flute requires an exceptionally high quality bamboo for its construction, the Nanguan Dongxiao proves to exceptionally accurate tonally. It serves as the tuning instrument for the Nanguan, as well as the key melody instrument.

Other instruments are played in some Beiguan music, known as Xiao, nevertheless, they are constructed of wood “to no fixed pattern, with no 10 eyes and 9 sections” (“Vertical bamboo fluteâ€¦,” Â¶ 1). This particular flute, a Nan-Guan instrument, is generally part of a band, but is used instead for ensemble or solo performances. (“Vertical bamboo fluteâ€¦,” Â¶ 2). Figure 3.2 shows a picture of a Xiao, which is a vertical bamboo flute.

Figure 3.2: Xiao Vertical Bamboo Flute (“Vertical bamboo fluteâ€¦,” Â¶ 2).

3.3 Nose Flutes

Bamboo comprises the primary medium for nose-blown flutes in most Southeast Asian countries. As true of many ethnic instruments that develop in a number of diverse cultures, several variations of the nose-blown flute exist; each offering a slightly different way to produce musical notes.

The use of nose-blown flutes is common in many places such as Polynesia and parts of Africa, and is historically important with the courtship process in ethnic minorities of China, as well as a way for lovers to communicate with one another through the medium of music. This is especially significant in cultures where breath is equated with spirit, as it implies the giving of one’s self to a loved one, and receiving back a part of that loved one. The instrument is also favored in agrarian cultures.

Some individuals have perceived [some may still perceive] nose-blown flutes to possess magical or spiritual powers. These flutes, popular in particular cultures, in certain ethnic groups of SEA among Filipinos, Taiwanese, Malaysians, and Indonesians were frequently used for courting purposes. The Kalingga nose flute, Tongali, of the Philippines, for example, characterized by a long body with a thick epidermis and a narrow bore that enables it to create soft and gentle sounds, was popular in courting rituals among different cultures in the provinces.

The Bidi, the nose flute of the Taiwan Aborigines, most commonly utilized in courting, in expressing sorrow, and in social gatherings, has one or two tubes.

The nose flutes from the rain-forest of Malaysia, with lager bores, were also frequently used during mating rituals. The Lanoh nose flutes are similar in shape and structure to the Pacific islanders’, such as Hawaiian and Tongan flutes. In the Tongan culture, musicians also use the nose flute for courting and to produce the wake up signal during the night time. In contrast to Southeast Asians, Hawaiians primarily used nose flute, crafted of differing sizes and shapes for different pitches, as a communication tool.

Even though some people may not be familiar with flute played nasally, individuals in many cultures around the world, particularly in Africa, the Philippines, and the Oceanic Islands readily recognize this variation of the instrument. Slight variations of the nose-blown flute surface from one location to another in aspects such as length, internal diameter sizes, and location of the mouth hole. As depicted in Figure 3.3, the Lanoh nose flute from Malaya and fangufangu of Tonga are similarly decorated with engraved rings on their bodies.

Figure 3.3: Lanoh Nose Flute and Fangufangu (Mclean, p. 80).

In some cultures, the nose-blown flute resembles the mouth-blown flutes; with the only difference being the method by which the musician blows air through the instrument. The fact that some of New Zealand’s nose-blown flutes could also be played orally confused some early travelers from Europe .

Although, the Lanoh flute has five holes instead of three and a thumb hole on the back side, these flutes from the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands have almost same the lengths and widths.

Nose-blown flutes may vary slightly regarding where the nose holes are positioned. Some versions have the hole placed on the side; while other designs have the nose hole on the plugged end of the flute body. Some designs allow for air to pass from both nostrils into the nose hole. Other types require that the player close off one nostril using the thumb. Some nose-blown flutes are designed for the musician to play the instrument is by positioning his nostril against the flute at an angle. Others versions require the musician to press his nostril firmly against the nose hole on the instrument.

3.3.1 Tongali Nose Flutes

In the Philippines, a land discovered in the early 1600s by Dominican missionaries and the Spanish Army, musicians play the tongali, a nose flute. played it has a hole on the edge which the player places a nostril against to produce a sound. It has a long and narrow internal diameter, and it is easy to play different octaves through variations in blowing strength, even though the nostrils are not able to expel air with much force. Finger holes in the side of the tube change the operating length, enabling it to sound various scales. The player typically uses a leaf to plug the other unused nostril to increase the force of their breath through the flute.

The Kalinga and other peoples of Luzon play the tongali, Figure 3.4, a four-holed nose flute [ hole in back of flute] from the northern Philippines. The Kalinga people explain that the tongali comprised a special traditional instrument of the Kalinga, native head hunters, and the warriors of the Northern Highlands of the Philippines.

It was re-discovered in the 1970s.

Figure 3.4: Tongali Flute (Philippines Nose Flute (Such, ***)

The tongali depicts one of the few nose flutes in the world that professors still actively teach musicians to play. The late Jose Maceda at the University of the Philippines and the music department of University of the Philippines, Quezon initiated this effort. Stories from this region purport that musicians played the nose flute to help young rice plants grow. According to the story, as the soft sounds of the flute attracted the rice plant, it would grow to put its ear above the water in to hear the tunes better.

Beni Sokkong, known as the instrument maker, explains how the nose flute is crafted in a video documentary. To start the process of crafting this instrument, Sokkong chooses a particular piece of bamboo and cuts it to the desired length. Next, he drills the thumb hole in the middle of the back side of the bamboo segment. Sokkong then drills a second hole in the middle of the end of the bamboo piece and the thumb hole. He utilizes two fingers to measure the 3rd hole toward the end of the piece. To complete the nose flute, he uses two fingers as a guide to give a bit more space to drill the fourth hole toward the nose hole.

Musicians, who usually play the tongali in solo or traditional ensemble music, also use this instrument during courtship. The melodies usually follow a descending pattern. Some may question the rationale for using a nose flute instead of a mouth-blown flute. Dr. Trimillos asserts the reason to be spiritual and explains: “The nose carries the life breath and has a close relationship to the soul.”

When used in the mating, the ritual begins as boys play nose flutes during the night to ask girls to talk with them. They play this soft-sounding instrument to sound intimate songs of love to woo the girls.

The flutes found in the Philippines are distinctively different than those in mainland Southeast Asia. One subgroup of Filipinos, the Negritos, played nose-blown flutes and shared a number of musical commonalities with Africans, Taiwanese minorities, New Zealanders, and even Hawaiians. One of the rituals of their tradition, known as the “rice ritual,” featured the nose-blown flute as a mainstay. During the evenings, especially after long hours of work, young male would go to the sleeping quarters of the females and attempt to court them by playing the kalaleng, or the nose-blown flute. The girls inside their huts would listen carefully to the songs’ “descending pentatonic melodies sound pleasing in the silence of the night, almost as inaudible.”

The girls would respond vocally.

For the Filipinos, like most of the Southeast Asians, bamboo proved vital in their culture as they utilized it for shelters, food, weapons, traps, receptacles, and musical instruments.

Bamboo enabled the Filipinos to construct end-blown flutes with thin walls; cut into various shapes. In fact, 63 different kinds of end-blown flutes native are “nativeto the Philippines.

3.3.2 Tongan Oceanic Nose flute

The Kingdom of Tonga comprises a part of an archipelago in the South Pacific located between New Zealand and Hawaii.

Fangufangu. one of the well- known nose flutes of Tongan Island, retrieves its description from several European literature sources from the 18-19th century.

The location of the mouth hole, in the middle of the fangugangu flute differentiates it from other Southeast Asian nose flutes. During the process of making this instrument, the individual drill the middle hole on a large bamboo tube and two holes near the end. The craftsman folds a string is half to measure the middle holes between the end holes and then drills the middle holes. In total, the flute has five holes. Compared to the diameter of the Filipino nose flutes, the diameter (20mm) of the fangugangu flute is wide. This flute, albeit, is comparable to flutes of Malaya as it is more decorative.

3.3.3 the New Zealand Nose Flute

Whether or not some cultures played their nose flutes orally as well by nose remains unclear. According to Mclean, a Maori flute, even though this flute was characterized and widely known as a nose flute, musician played the kooauau with the mouth.

The puutoorinoa and nguru, the real Maori nose flutes do not remotely resemble the nose flutes of Tonga or Hawaii. The Mori transverse flute, known as the rehu, is known as a flute men used to court women; however, it is not clear whether the men blew the flutes by mouth or nose.

3.4 Bamboo Flute Tradition vis-a-vis

In the article, “Aspects of Yoruba oral tradition: Importance, richness and limits in the context of unfreedom,” Segun Gbadegesin, PhD, relates information about fables regarding the flute. The Yoruba, Gbadegesin explains, told numerous fables that possessed elements of the supernatural. For example:

In the story of Oro Iroko (Iroko Tree Demon), the son of a farmer was trapped on a tree which was being maliciously cut by a demon. The boy had three magic gourds in his pocket. Each time the demon was about to succeed in cutting the tree, the boy would throw one gourd and the tree would be joined together again. After he had thrown the last magic gourd, he seemed to be at the mercy of the demon. Then he remembered the flute that his father had given him. He blew it loud and sang as follows:

Okemo kerewu, aja ode

The one who cuts in pieces: hunter’s dog

Osopaka gbe won mi, aja ode

The one who swallows at an instant: hunter’s dog

Ogbale gbarawe, aja ode

The one who cleans like a broom: hunter’s dog

Iya nje mi lehin re o, aja ode

I am suffering in your absence: hunter’s dog

At the sound of the flute, all his dogs reported and devoured the demon. (Gbadegesin, Fables Section, Â¶ 1-2).

3.5 Religion in SEA

The article, “South-East Asian Religions,” reports island and mainland SE Asians practice Animism, an ancient indigenous religion. This religion probably simply developed naturally as the early Bronze Age communities advanced, albeit, the precise temporal beginnings of Animism are not documents. “Animism continues to exert a strong influence on the modern cultures both Buddhistic and Islamic of SE Asia. Together with aspects of Confucianism from China, Animism underpins all the adopted religions of the region” (“South-East Asian Religions,” Â¶ 1), and may date back to the earliest known human communities, like that of Ban Chiang in North East Thailand; perceived to date from 3,000 BC. According to the archaeological finds of the Malayan peninsula, Indonesia and the southern delta regions of Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, the religions of Buddhism and Hinduism, initially appeared about the first to third centuries of the Christian millennium.

Indian traders and missionaries from Indian and Ceylon likely introduced these religions. “Knowledge of their philosophies, art work, and administrative approaches accompanied the rise of the first commercial states in these regions such as Funan, Chen-la, Sating Pra, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Takua Pa” (“South-East Asianâ€¦,” Â¶ 1) Hinduism, which grew in Cambodia from the eight to thirteenth centuries, as well as in Indonesia at approximately the same time frame, remained a superficial influence in Thailand, Burma, Laos. I nstead, Buddhism became strongly rooted in these regions.

During the time of the empires of Sri Vijaya, Malayu, Mataram, and Majapahit, the practice of Hinduism increased in Indonesia. In Cambodia, Hindusiam comprised the basic relition of ancient Angkorian civilization. Archaeological discoveries in Thailand and southern Burma reveal that Theravada Buddhism proved dominant in the ancient kingdom of Dvaravati until approximately the eleventh century when the Khmer and the Thai overpowered the region. Nevertheless, Theravada Buddhism overcame its conquerors and extended throughout Pagan Burma (11th century), the first great classical Thai kingdom at Sukhothai (13th-14th centuries (, as well as post Angkor Cambodia and Laos (“South-East Asianâ€¦,”).

During the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries following the fall of Baghdad, the balance of power in the west changed. This affected the trade routes; consequently impacting the Islamic world’s revenues. Only then did Islam, reportedly present since the early Christian era among the Muslim traders, begin to spread as a concerted movement. ” by the end of the fourteenth century the great temple building empires of SE Asia were all in crisis perhaps as a result of the strain on manpower and resources which such huge building programs entailed” (“South-East Asianâ€¦,” Â¶ 2). Islam, with its reported emphasis on individualism, strongly spread roots amidst commercial groups in the port cities of Sumara, Java, and southern Malay peninsula at Malacca. Over a 200-year period, Islam later spread to the archipelago world of eastern Indonesia. A series of upheavals in Java and Sumatra revealed the route of the classical Hindu empires and a new polity being established in the various Islam states such as Demak, Banten, Aceh and the newly resurrected Islamic state of Mataram. When the European merchants, missionaries and administrators, Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British arrived in SEA, they pressured Islam to coalesce to protect its gains from the fresh threat as the counter-reformation spread to SE Asia (“South-East Asianâ€¦,” Â¶ 2).

3.5.1 Islamic Religious Movement

The Islamic religious movement in Mindanao during the 14th century left its traces by leaving behind long, thin, vertical flutes. In credit to the ‘Silk Road’, some individuals imported numerous European instruments into the SE Asian countries as well. The invasions of Southeast Asia during the Great Voyages of the 14th and 15th centuries, along with Catholic missionary trips during the Spanish Inquisition, brought about discoveries of some new musical instruments, such as the six-holed transverse flute. Figure 3.5 notes the locations of similar kinds of flutes found in the world map.

Figure 3.5: Map of Locations with Similar Flutes (Need source)

Archeologists have discovered numerous distinct kinds of flutes in the archipelago region that cannot be found in SEA’s mainland. Lands located on the same side of the equator reportedly have similarities in their musical cultures and instruments. For instance, as noted in Figure 3.5 (above) the people of E, F, and G. regions play diatonic flutes. Individual in regions C, B, H, and I play the vertical flutes; the long, six- holed flutes. People from a, D, and J. areas use flutes for animistic rituals.

3.5.2 Religion as evidence of influence

The religious traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism in 7th century were able to coexist in Southeast Asia because they share common bonds, such as belief in animism and worship of ancestry. Through their close proximity, the traditions native to each religion began to overlap and influence each other. The Chinese adopted the Indian tradition of god-kind, while the Indians adopted Chinese rituals, court ceremonies, and music.

Malaysian and Indonesian Islam-ism clearly influenced the early instruments of the Middle East. The Islamic culture mostly uses flutes for funereal and wedding ceremonies because of their ability to play melismatic tunes. These flutes were specifically constructed to possess the ability to play the hemitone scale with semitone, popular among scales derived from the Islamic culture.

In both the islands and mainland of SEA, many individuals reportedly practiced belief in animism. Animists believe that spirits inhabit objects and affect the well-being of those around them. This religion contends that the spirits in those usually inanimate objects, such as rocks, trees, and mountains, could also indwell individuals. The Southeast Asian animists considered flutes to be holy subjects that contained magical powers. They believed that only the holiest of people with magical powers possessed the capability to handle them.

The Malaysian banci, an extremely large common type of flute, depicts one example of the flutes Southeast Asian animists used in rituals to summon spirits.

Animists believed they could become powerful, spiritual and natural beings by donning distinctive garb and playing the customary long flutes during their religious rituals. Papua New Guinean tribes are portrayed in Figure 3.6. Indonesians of the Irian Jaya province, depicted in Figure 3.7, worship these long flutes. For their rituals, they wear costumes with giant feathery hats and necklaces made of beans.

Figure 3.6: Papua New Guinean Tribes (Matusky, p. 824)

Figure 3.7: Indonesians of the Irian Jaya Province (Matusky, p. 824)

The Rukai tribe of Taiwan, portrayed in Figure 3.8, plays nose-blown flutes and wears costumes similar to the Papua New Guinean Tribes and the Indonesians tribes in their animistic festivals. These tribes, geographically distant from each other, share uncanny similarities.

Figure 3.8: Rukai tribe of Taiwan (Matusky, p. 824))

Their religion the Papua New Guinean Tribes practice, as well as that which the Indonesians of the Irian Jaya Province and the Rukai tribe of Taiwan subscribe to resembles that of the Aborigines of Malay and Papua New Guinea. People in this area also wear feathered hats and play soft love songs. They are considered “dreamers.” These shamanist believers reportedly use music to communicate with their gods.

Another theory relating to the religious rituals these tribes practice purports that distinctive ethnic groups called Negritos gradually moved southwards around 2500-1500 BC from the southwest corner of China following the river valleys; thence along the coasts of the SE peninsula and to the near islands. As the travelers moved through the jungles and rivers and eventually settled down as fishermen and farmers, they might have brought the culture of the Pygmy Negritos of Africa with them. Their animistic beliefs, with all the inherent magical and mystical associations, depicted some of trace of the cultural influences. Regardless of the major influences of Hinduism, Buddhism, Muslim, and Christianity, many individuals continue to practice the rituals of harvesting, rites of passage, court rituals, and other ceremonies of animism. The belief that the spirit resides in instruments with preternatural power continues to constitute part of the influence of the religion.

Some of the magical practices of the Taiwan Aborigines potentially support a theory that the ethnic people are from the Southwest part of China. Instead of using ‘Dream Song Makers’ of Southerners, these individuals play the “talking instruments.” In Southern Chinese provinces, individuals regularly used the “mystical talking instruments” as communication tools to “talk” with ghosts over long distances. They also used them over short distances to communicate with lovers.

“A & #8230;youth from Lipo, Guzhou Provinceâ€¦ [would] wait till night fall to insert an evening flute (nose flute) into a hole previously dug in the wall of a girl’s hut to announce him to ask the girl her age and zodiac.”

Individuals throughout the southern Chinese provinces practiced particular religious rituals and also often performed certain mating rituals as part of their life rituals.

3.6 Hinduism Influences in Bali, Malaysia, Borneo and Kalimanta

The flutes in Southeast Asia, identified as suling, serling, kesuling, enduling and nabat, have four or more holes near the end of the instruments. The musician may play the flute vertically or obliquely to his mouth. Some of the flutes, with the end shaved to create a sharp edge, can produce more than one octave and play soft sounds. These flutes were usually played in the improvisatory style (Matusky).

3.6.1 Bali

The Hindus and Buddhists from India developed the majority of the musical instruments of Java during the 7th and 8th century. They also developed ceremonial music to accompany certain religious rituals. In the society, composed of small kingdoms, also under Javanese influence, the royal court set the standards of music and other artistic forms. The kingdom of Majapahit was most influential in setting music and art standards.

Traditionally, the Javanese gamelan ensemble, known for its expansive ensemble, employs a rich variety of instrument types. In a full set of gamelan, besides metallophones and gongs, other types of instruments include a set of drums (kendhang), bowed- and plucked-strings (rebab and celempung), xylophone (gambang), and a bamboo flute, suling.

Various sizes of sulings used in Gamelans also characterize the drama with different pitches and sound effects. The scale of Gamhuh follows the pentatonic system driven from “saith pitu,” which keeps two auxiliary tones. The pentatonic modal scales in ascending orders are tembung, lebeng, barn, selisir, and sunaren.

Musicians gather the few sulings to cover the whole scales. The musicians must know how to change the pitch of singers for different forms of ensembles and as the song starts, they should able to adapt to playing in different modes and modulate to others.

The music played not only proves important for traditional ceremonial pieces, but also in theater and dance accompaniment for entertainment. Young people regularly flock to performances featuring flute music not only [nor always] to hear the tunes, but also because attending the concerts gives them opportunities to flirt with the members of the opposite sex.

3.6.2 Sulwesi and Torajan Flutes

For centuries, long flutes were used for ceremonies, such as funerals and weddings. The Mandailing people of North Sumatra used the drums to summon their ancestors, while they also sacrificed buffaloes, thinking this might please the soul of the dead. As pictured in Figure 3.9, the bamboo flute is often decorated with carvings, and sometimes has a buffalo-horn cone attached to its end.

The buffalo-horn cone indicates the instruments’ sacred function in Hinduism. The Dayak people of Kalimantan and other ethnic groups also practiced the sacrificial cult of the buffalo.

In a funeral ritual, a pair of flutists and a singer usually perform throughout the funeral in the tower house. Rituals such as this additionally reveal the multicultural developments of the society on the Hindu performance practice of ceremonial music and instruments, and the Muslim costumes.

Figure 3.9: Buffalo Flute with Buffalo-Horn Cone (Miller and Williams, p. 807).

3.7 Muslim Influences in Southeast Asian Flutes

3.7.1 Costumes and Performance Behavior

Figure 3.10 shows the Magindanaon ring flute player of the Philippines wearing a hat, a practice common among Muslim musicians in SEA. The old Yemeni flautist, depicted in Figure 3.11 also wears the typical Muslim hat as he holds the flute in a similar fashion as the one previously noted. Figure 3.9 additionally shows Tukomanian flutists wearing Muslim hats. The Muslim influence, reflected by the players’ costumes, is also mirrored in the way musicians played the instruments. For example, the player holds the instrument in a slightly oblique way and pushes against the flute with one corner of his mouth. These long flutes, approximately 30 to 60cm, have the finger holes located on the bottom half of the instrument. The musician in figure 3.10 is playing the khalloo, an ancient longitudinal flute from Yemen, located on the Arabian Peninsula in SEA.

Figure 3.10: Magindanaon Ring Flute Player (need source)

Figure 3.11: Old Yemeni Flautist (need source)

3.7.2 Islamic Musical Influences

Islam, one of the oldest religions established in the Philippines, arrived in the Southeast Asian islands in the 14th century with the advent of Indian, Malaysian, and Javanese merchants, and Islamic missionaries from various sultanates in the Malaysian archipelago. The spread of this religion in the Philippines may be attributed to the strength of Islamic India,

however, India brought Islam to SEA, specifically Malaysia and Indonesia. In turn, the latter two brought Islam to the Philippines.

The primary religion of the Turkish people is reported to be Islam. Turkey’s history of Islamic tradition stretches back to the beginning of the Seljuk period and Ottoman Empire.

Research indicates that the Islamic colony popularized the long flute and imported it into Turkey and SEA. According to the Islamic Council of Victoria, historians argue that “by the beginning of the ninth century Arab merchants and sailors, and other Muslims had begun to dominate Nanhai (Guangzhou) or Southeast Asian Trade.”

Apparently, foreign Muslims arrived on the west coast of Sumatra by the seventy century, although the Hinduism and Buddhism stabilized in Indonesia later in the ninth century.

A. Cultural Diffusion

The melodic traditions of India, Indochina, and China influenced some of the music of Java. This cultural diffusion enabled a great number of local instruments and concepts to arise. To better understand the development of these instruments, one may consider a number of aspects, including the evolution of instruments from Java and Bali. Other relevant considerations include those instruments of other Southeast Asian countries and the cultural-historical and political developments of the Archipelago, especially in Sumatra, Java, and Bali, in connection to those of India, Yunnan, and China.

This referral of cultures began in the third century when the kingdom of Funan sent diplomats to India, China, and even further; even to the Malay Peninsula. In the fifth century, the Malay dynasty of Sumatra developed trading routes which linked China, India, Sri Lank and Indonesia to each other.

During the Sailendra dynasty, when the enemy held the king of Java hostage in his own country in 802 a.D., he brought in the Brahmanism cult with the “wayang kulit,” a form of Javanese dance and drama. The following generation in Khmer engendered powerful kings who ruled Angkor, a region sprawled over Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.

When the Thai people conquered Angkor in the 15th century, their kings adopted the culture of the Khmers and intermingled certain practices within their own culture. In addition, the Burmese, upon their successful conquest of the Thai capital in 1767, kept the Khmer artists, who in turn influenced these people.

As European hegemony spread over Southeast Asia, this influenced the development of transverse flutes; especially in the Philippines and Indonesia. The Christianized regions succumbed to this influence, which contributed to the six-holed flutes native to that area continuing to be passed down.

The Di-Qiang tribe’s migration to the southern and western points of China ended at the Hengduan Mountains. Nevertheless, he Di-Qiang scale system of China, research reveals, influenced the Yunnan, one of the national minorities of China’s South and Southwest region.

Due to the influence of China’s musical ethnicity, this change in the diaspora created unique instruments, such as exceedingly long flutes and transverse nose flutes.

Conclusion

During this chapter, the researcher addressed the kinds of flutes and characteristics depicting those flutes that may be found in SEA and also noted the physical comparisons of three kinds of flutes found in different cultures: 1) Side-blown flute; 2) vertically blown flute; 3) nose blown flute. This chapter also includes information relating to the musical aspects and origins of these three flutes, as well as traces the history of the bamboo flute tradition vis-a-vis, the religions and their influence on the development of flutes; with their performance and practices.

During the next chapter, the researcher examines ways the tradition of flute playing in SEA may be enmeshed with practices named in a number of cultures Some are in Chinese writing; some “crowned with the character, ‘bamboo’ (zhu)” (Han, Bamboo in Asia Section, Â¶ 5). Indications from the material from which the instruments are made help determine their origin.

CHAPTER IV

SOCIO-ECONOMICAL BACKGROUND of SOUTHEAST ASIA

“Southeast Asians rarely became carbon copies of their mentors;

they took ideas they wanted from outsiders and, like the Japanese and Europeans,

adapted them to their own indigenous values and institutions, creating in the process a synthesis”

(Lockard, Borrowing and Adaptation I Section, Â¶ 3).

Chapter IV addresses question 3: How may the tradition of flute playing in SEA be enmeshed with practices of a number of cultures? In this chapter, the researcher also examines certain aspects of SEA’s socio-economical background which may have affected the development of flutes. In addition, the researcher presents information relating to the history of trading and invasions of outsiders on SEA which influenced the culture and life styles; consequently determining various functions of flutes.

For centuries, SEA borrowed ideas, products, and instruments from other cultures. Sometimes, they acquired these cultural components by foreign conquest. Still, SE Asians seldom became carbon copies of their mentors. “Historians are impressed with the resilience and strength of the many indigenous beliefs and traditions that have survived the centuries of borrowing and change” (Lockard, Borrowing and Adaptation Section, Â¶ 3). Instead of merely mimicking other cultures, SE Asians acquired ideas they desired from outsiders and adapted them to their own indigenous institutions and values.

4.1 Socio-economical Background of SEA

Most Southeast Asian kingdoms reflect signs that China and India influenced their cultures. A number of the rituals, languages, and instruments native to the mainland population of SEA also influenced the cultures of the islanders. The jar burial known to belong to Palawan Island in the Philippines, has also been found in Borneo and Vietnam, some three thousand years after the Island’s demise. The ceramics and Yueh-reminiscent wares of northern Mindanao Island in the Philippines indicate trade with China transpired during the Five Dynasties of the 10th century.

Archeologists have also discovered musical instruments, such as gongs, bells, and cymbals alongside artifacts to indicate these evolved from the era of Genghis Khan.

Lockard explains more regarding SE Asians’ history of borrowing from other cultures as they adapted to become their own unique cultere:

Between 250 BCE-200 CE China and India began exercising a stronger influence; China even colonized Vietnam in the 2nd century BCE, ruling for the next thousand years. Some scholars see these contacts as a generator of state building, others as a response to it. Indian traders and priests began regularly traveling the oceanic trade routes, some of them settling in mainland and island states. They brought with them Indian concepts of religion, government, and the arts. At the same time, Southeast Asian sailors were visiting India and returning with new ideas. Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism became a strong influence in a process often termed “Indianization” (or, more recently, “southernization”), which continued over many centuries and synthesized Indian with indigenous ideas.8 This occurred about the same time as classical Greco-Roman “civilization” was spreading around the Mediterranean in a similar process. For a millennium many Southeast Asians were closely connected to the more populous and developed societies of southern Asia, partaking in the general historical trends of the Afro-Eurasian Historical Complex to a greater degree than most of the peoples on the western and northern fringes of post-Roman Europe between 500 and 1400.

Due partly to the stimulus from outside, the great classical states developed near the end of the first millennium CE, with their main centers in what is today Cambodia, Burma, the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra, and Vietnam, which managed to throw off the 1000-year Chinese colonial yoke in the 10th century CE. In this period many Southeast Asian states made brilliant and selective use of Indian models in shaping their political and cultural patterns. (Lockard, Borrowing and Adaptation II Section, Â¶ 1-2).

4.2 Development of Flutes

One theory purports that the nose flutes of Taiwan Aborigines may have evolved from the Black Current region; which also contends the culture of aborigines originated from this region; and in turn imported to Taiwan.

The term “Black Current Culture” refers to a region that includes SEA, the Southeastern Pacific, and the South China Sea. According to Hsu in “Taiwan: Music of the Taiwan Aborigines,” none of the musical characteristics of this region, such as its gong ensembles, music dramas, puppet shows, or pentatonic scales, are present in Taiwan’s Aboriginal music.

Nevertheless, the Aborigines follow similar religious rituals such as those practiced by Southeast Asian nose flute players. A number of ethnologists believe that the Taiwan Aborigines belonged to the Malay-Indonesian or Austronesia family, but later migrated to Taiwan.

The nose flute ritual may constitute one proof that Taiwan Aborigines might have emigrated from Southeast Asia, or that they comprise later generations of Austronesians.

Paiwans play the bidi, a bamboo nose flute which only exists in Austronesian culture. These individuals use the instrument for courtship, to express sorrow, and also play them at social gatherings. Even though the Rukai tribe of Taiwan, one of the rare tribes that shares the nose flute culture, largely converted to Christianity, some people have retained a number of the animistic totem images and human figures in traditional wood carvings and decorative pottery inside their homes.

In the middle of August, the Rukai hold their harvest festival, and wear their unique costumes that one may not find in mainland China (fig.3).

4.2.1 Central Asian Flutes

Although the two cultures of SEA and Central are remotely located, the Southeast Asian transverse flutes and Central Asian flutes match in many ways. Like the Southeast Asia flutes, the Central Asian transverse flutes have six holes with an opening at the distal end. This instrument has a blow-hole, with no evidence of a membrane hole.

Central Asian flutes were also shorter and wider than present Chinese flutes.

The recent discovery of 8000 years old flutes with six to eight holes made of bone, which play most diatonic scales and more, suggests that even Neolithic people in Central Asia musicians played flutes. On the typical contemporary Chinese map, the Sinkiang Province, which meant “new territory,” is located in Central Asia near the Russia, Tibet, and Turkey. The people who made up the province were Mongolians, Turkistans, and Kazakhstanis live in this area, formerly Uyghur, not Chinese.

The Sinkiang province eventually became a part of China.

Tonal analysis of the Central Asian flute reveals that the seven holes correspond to a tone scale remarkably similar to the Western eight-note scale that begins “do, re, mi.”

Researchers contend that this carefully-selected tone scale suggests the Neolithic musician of the seventh millennium BC could play not just single notes, but perhaps even music. This explains how the mainland Southeast Asians adopted the early versions of diatonic scales in first millennium by way of Central Asia. Today, the mainland Southeast Asians play the six hole transverse flute which produce c, d, e, f, g, a and b. These flutes, quite long, like early Chinese flutes, measure 50 cm and 1.5 centimeters in diameter.

Even though China’s culture became embedded in Vietnam when China overtook the country and ruled it until the 10th century, the membrane hole of has not been found in Islands of SEA. During the ninth century, a trading route connected Central Asia to China, India and Southeast Asia.

The usage of diatonic scale by the flute indicates China’s strong influence in Central Asian. The six holed flutes in SEA are not the invention of China, albeit. These more likely evolved in Central Asia or elsewhere.

4.2.2 Transverse flutes of Africa

Transverse flutes exist in both East and South Africa. Indian merchants t may have introduced chivoti to the coastal area of Kenya as this flute closely resembles the bansuri of India, as it is a six hole flute without a thumb hole. The musician does not use all six holes to play the instrument, however, which suggests the adoption of an external model. Kirby argues that the Southern African flutes may be copies of European flutes.

Either Indians or European traders may have introduced both Southeast Asian flutes, African flutes to their respective countries.

Most African flutes are end-blown with various notches; with some exceptions. The long transverse flutes known as vern, ludaya and lusweje are played among the upland Gisu in Eastern Uganda. In other places, like East Africa, among the costal tribes in Kenya and the Porogro of East Central Tanzania, transverse flutes presumably come from Arab origin.

These flutes, akin to the nose-blown flutes of the Tongans, have three stops; two at one end of the flute and the third at the other. The fact that musicians play this flute in the normal manner suggests the musician may have also played the flute with his nose.

Archeologists have not discovered these specific side-blown flutes anywhere else in East Africa.

Even though musicians do not currently play transverse flutes in North Africa, they do play the gasba, an old North African transverse flute imported into Spain during the Moorish period. In West Africa, some transverse flutes, although rare, exist in Ruinee, Mali and Burkina Faso. These flutes have two to holes and have stops on their distal end.

In central Africa, the transverse nose-blown flute called bolukuluku, from the Ekonda region, has two finger holes closed at the lower end. As in SEA, other cultures in Africa adopted the transverse flute, approximately 50cm long.

The various cultures, albeit, customize the manner of playing the instrument with the nose so that performance reflects the player’s unique culture. Indians and Europeans, however, do not reportedly play transverse flutes by nose.

4.2.3 African Nose Flutes

The commonality of the use of nose flutes among the minorities of China, the Philippines, and the Pacific Islands explain the Proto-Australoids’ hypothesis on the ancient hunter-gatherer people who descended from the first major wave of modern humans exiting Africa 100,000 years ago. Not only do these people have similar nose flutes, they also share the culture confirming the significance of the nose flute in mating rituals and animistic ceremonies. Regardless of their similar physical appearances, Africans constitute the pioneers of the nose flute which might relate to certain ethnic groups of Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands. Proto-Australoids, Australians, New Guineans, and Melanesians, as well as some Malaysians, Indonesians, and Southern Indians have undeniable resemblances to the African culture. The existence of the nose flute in contemporary Africa, however, proves rare.

4.2.4 Central Africa

The transverse nose-flute, called bolukuluku, from the Ekonda region, equipped with two finger holes, closed at the lower end, approximately 50cm long, has an extremely thin body.

The Filipino flutes, compared to those from the Oceanic islands, are typically long and slim.

4.2.5 Western Africa

In Congo, although nose flutes are common to at least seven different tribes, a dearth of information surrounds them. In the book, Land and Peoples of the Kasai, which features the land and people of the Kasai, M.W. Hilton-Simpson describes the nose flute culture of Western Congo; the Kasai tribes. These individuals performed the musical instruments for special occasions, such as when foreigners visit with gifts. The boys play the regular wooden flute, while the girls play the nose flute.

The Bahuana of the Kwila River played jointed cane nose flutes, another nose flute. The musician uses his right hand to control the exit of the air at the lower end of this flute; with the upper stopped partially with gum. This resembles the way Yunnan of Southern China play their transverse flutes as the players control the pitch by covering the distal end.

4.3 Transverse Flutes of Proto-Australoids

Proto-Austronesian speakers and their descendants settled in Taiwan, the Philippines, certain parts of the Asian mainland, and Indonesia. Some of these people ultimately settled in the Pacific Islands, including New Zealand, as part of their maritime expansion. Some perceive that this resettling occurred in 5000 BCE.

Distinctive characteristics of proto-Austronesian transverse flutes include those noted by cross flutes, which means the musician may play the flute with either his mouth or nose. These flutes, used for mating rituals or ritualistic purposes have finger holes ranging in number from zero to four. They also range in length from extremely short to up to two meters. The ends may either be closed on both sides, or left open on one end. As the Negrito tribes of the Philippines have used flutes for different functions, they have used some flutes, the salet and nabad, for magical invocations. They use the senoi, temiar, and panscol, however, for courtship.

When walking through the bush, the Negritos carry mouth-blown transverse flutes. These flutes, open at both ends, may double as whistles. When not used as whistles, the musician plugs the ends of the instrument to play it as a flute.

These “walking stick flutes” are also used in the Yunnan province as well.

Figure 4.2: “Walking Stick Flute” Played by Mouth (Blench, p.10)

Figure 4.1: “Walking Stick Flute” Played by Nose (Blench, p.10)

Musicians in the Kintak Bong and Lanoh tribes of Malaya play transverse flutes with three stops; show in Figure 7. The holes are been bored, one nudged with a red-hot iron, and a similar hole towards the proximal end for the mouth.

The ends are closed by nodes of bamboo, and in the Kintak Bong flute, parts of the adjacent inner nodes are left beyond the nodes at both ends. These flutes have larger diameters than others but are of the same length. They have four circular rattan bindings which give strength to the body and protect it from further splitting. Some Kintak Bong flutes could have been used as nose-blown flutes, but Lanoh has a separate cross nose flute (fig. 8) which has even more ornamented bands. The Lanoh’s nose-blown flute also has a distinctive nostril hole. Kmhmu Highlanders from Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam speak Austroasiatic language, and play their transverse flutes with nose, too. These transverse nose flutists (figure 4.3) can sing (whisper) while they are playing the flutes.

Figure 4.3: Kmhum Higlanders With Transverse Nose Flutes (Blench, p. *).

Due to the way musicians played the New Zealand’s version of the transverse flute, some initially mistook the kooauau as a nose-blown flute. Duclesmeur described this flute a three-hole flute which musicians “blow with their noses’

. Musicians may have played this flute by both nose and mouth, however; similar to the way the Malay tribes played their transverse flutes. The flutes of Tonga have comparatively large bore holes (20mm) and short bodies. During the Voyage of Discoveries, the Europeans knew these flutes as nose-blown flutes.

Some Southeast Asian traits of long flutes show the indigenous people’s performance behaviors. Their flutes, imported from Africa, were highly decorated. This characterizes the flutes shared among the people of Yunnan Province and Papua New Guineas, regions also likely influenced by African cultures in regard to music.

The short three-hole flutes of the Philippines are usually nose-blown flutes. However, the Yunnan people of southern China played flutes with no finger holes and could control the pitch by covering the distal end. The lack of finger holes means that the player experimented with the distal end of the flute and used over tone techniques to vary the sounds. These short transverse flutes have blow-holes in the centers of the body; with both ends open.

4.3.1 Flutes of the Archipelagoes of Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands

Specific evidence of traditions belonging to the Proto-Australoids, shared with the various tribes within the regions they traveled, includes the worship of animals, and rituals for mating and initiations. Based on the theory that Southeast Asians evolved from Oceanic Islanders, anthropologist Jared Diamond finds that the “original people” of Malay, the Orang Asli, may comprise the ancestors of the Aboriginal Australians and Papuans of New Guinea.

Some indigenous developments of the transverse flute may have in part occurred due to the Polynesians. Some parts of Malaya have similar cross flutes as the tribes of Tonga and New Zealand. These flutes are longer and thicker-walled than flutes from the mainland. Like Tongans in Pacific Ocean, the Orang Asli indigenous people of the Malaya peninsula play the transverse flute with both their mouths and noses. The blow-holes are located either at the end or the very center of the flute. Evidence of transverse flutes with central blow-holes may be found in Yunnan and other coastal lands of the provinces of southern China, as well as in some areas of central Africa.

Pacific Islanders have two to four-holed flutes, usually closed at the lower ends. The ends of these flutes, which can produce pentatonic scales, are usually plugged by bamboo inter-nodes. In New Guinea, the flute ends are left open and the proximal end is stuffed with a handful of mud just before performance.

Some of Papua New Guinea and Melanesia flutes measure two meters in length and musicians usually play these instruments in pairs for ceremonies for the men’s houses. They flutes, equipped with single blow holes, play only a single harmonic series. Ensembles made up of short transverse flutes with no finger holes are found in north and central New Guinea. The players partially uncover the distal end to produce different harmonic series.

The “shoulder flutes” of the Vanuatu measure more than a meter in length and have decorative elements that extend to the left of the blow hole and rest on the flautist’s shoulder. They have four finger holes, two in line with the blowhole and the other two on the opposite side.

The Yunnan province’s long flute has finger holes located near the proximal ends and decorative extensions just beyond the mouth hole.

The “Arc” people of the Solomon Islands play the auporare, a flute with a single finger hole; closed at the far end.

The rehu, the version of the flute the Maori men play to court women, has three finger holes. In many of these Oceanic islands, musicians played these side-blown flutes either by mouth or nose and used the tunes as “mating calls.” This particular use of the instrument, however, was not favorable to many missionaries; however, for centuries it was more favorable than European flutes.

4.4 European Influences

While transverse flutes are common in China today, the transverse flutes are rare in the islands of Southeast Asia. Even though the six-holed fife was discovered in the Philippines, it appears to have originated from European influences. Only a few numbers of transverse flutes are left in those areas formerly occupied by the Spanish, such as Ilocano, Sebuano, Cuyunin, and Hanunoo in the Philippines. According to Maceda, the Buhid, Waray. Cuyunin, Cebuano, Batak and Tagbana peoples have a kind of transverse flute called the palawta, a name derived from the Spanish language.

Collaer states: “A six-holed transverse flute occurs on Ambon in Sulawesi, but this is probably also a European introduction.”

Historians theorize that Europeans introduced the six-holed flute to Southeast Asians during the Great Voyages of Discovery, and aborigines copied the flutes using local materials. These 14th century Voyagers may have introduced transverse flutes from Spain and Portugal to the Timor, and Flore, because they still carry Spanish names, too.

As a result of Christianization on the island of Tanimbar in the Moluccas, musicians still play transverse flutes in public schools in this area. Unlike the design of flutes from China and Central Asia, the thumb holes in these flutes are located on the back of the flutes like European flutes. In Toraja, the students play either a long 73cm flute or the standard 34cm transverse flute called a pasuling. The children in these bands, which consist of bamboo instruments, often play for special occasions, including town meetings and celebrations. Along with playing folk songs, they play numerous old Hyrum songs.

4.5 Trading in SEA

Before the Great Voyages of Discovery, indigenous people played the six-holed flutes from China, India, or other regions. Some evidence indicates Roman-Indian’s arrival in Southeast Asia, which explains the six-hole flutes in Vietnam. Lombard reports:

In the Northwest coast of Java, a specimen of embossed ceramics, of Roman origin, and diverse others of “Roman-Indian” provenance-date back to the first or second centuries. A little statue of Poseidon, a medal of Antonin of Pieux, and Alexandrine lamp, and fragments of antique vases were discovered in southern Vietnam, the Menam valley and the west coast of the Malay peninsula.”

The European six-holed flutes may have reached Southeast Asia through the Silk Road the Romans travelled in the 1st century, as in India and China. Europeans have a rather long (ca. 43,100 BCE) history with the transverse flute. The transverse flute is considered the oldest known musical instrument found in Europe.

Dr. Ivan Turk discovered the Neanderthal bone flute, shown in Figure 4.5, in Ljubljana Slovenian, a city formerly part of the Roman Empire, near Italy. The article, “Evolution of Transverse Flute,” purports:

A Neanderthal flute made from a bear’s thigh bone (Science, Nov. 2) was used to play sweet music, reports the Times of London. Canadian musicologist Bob Fink has studied the four inch artifact and concluded that it is based on the same seven-note scale used in modern western music. The flute, as it survives, could play four notes (Mi, Fa, Sol and Lah) in a minor key. In its original form, it would have been 15 inches long and capable of producing the entire scale.

The musicologist and his colleague continue to argue whether a diatonic scale was executed before a pentatonic scale. As noted earlier in the study, the bone flute of the 7th century from Central Asia also had diatonic scale.

The bone had a neutral third — which could reflect this choice. That is to say — they already could have had a pentatonic that they were beginning to turn into a diatonic — just as the Chinese independently did the same with their “pien” tones, and just as the ancient Scots and Irish did as well, occasionally adding the seventh and 3rd to their melodies, but not permanently into their scale.

If the musician plays the six-hole flute without a membrane hole and hole on the back of the instrument, he cannot play notes. This flute can produce more notes, however, when rightly designed, than a pentatonic scale. The evolution of the transverse flute, which also appears to have started in Europe, may have been configured to play a diatonic scale.

Figure 4.5: Neanderthal Bone Flute (need source)

The following has not yet been rewritten:

When Alexander the Great sent his troops to Asia in the 1st millennium BCE, great cultural exchanges happened between Asia and Europe. The great empires of Persia, India, and tribes of Central Asia were influenced and also influenced cultures of Europe. Therefore, it is not surprising to see similarly made transverse flutes on the route of the Silk Road (figure 4.6) that runs through Europe, Central Asia, Turkey, Africa, China and Southeast Asia. Central Asia has a considerable history in development of transverse flutes since it became a cultural pod of East and West. The archaeological finds in Karonatov el al, Khotan in East Turkestan, and the flute on the Bactrian silver dish from the 7th century shows a clear link between the histories of the instrument.

Representations of the tlues in Central Asian archaeology are not common, but they reflect the presence of the instrument on the ancient silk-road.

Figure 4.6: Need title and source

The transverse flutes with six holes, without membrane holes, and are rather short and large in diameter were common in India, Central Asia, and 1st century China due to the trading among these regions. However, the Southeast Asian 6 holed transverse flute with a thumb hole on the back was more popular in Europe. The Silk Road route lines on the 100 BCE Eurasian Map (figure 4.6) coexists with the passages of cultural exchanges in the land or sea.

4.5.1 Influence of Saudi Arabia and Middle East

Some might argue the antiquity of Eastern Asian musical instruments and their influence on the development of Western instruments. Some musicologists believe that a number of ancient instruments originated from the Arabic culture. Especially, it is known that most brass instruments came from Eastern Asian culture.

The names of instruments used not only in the East, but also in the West are derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the al’ud, ther ebec (kind of violin) from the rebab, the guitar from the qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (base drum) from al-tabl, and atambal from al-tinbal.

Figure 4.7: Need title and source

The 17th century picture in fig.19 shows a flute player leaning on the right side of his leg, and pushing the instruments against one corner of his mouth, like the Yemeni flute player in fig. 18. The ney of India is known in Uzbek, Tajik, Kra-Kalpak, and Saudi Arabia. However, it is possible that these Arabic cultures adopted the Indian flute into their own traditions. The use of an Arabic name is curious as it can hardly be traditional, suggesting that an older name was replaced by it following the heritage of post-Islamic Arabic culture.

The flute has 6 to 7 holes, and a metal mouth hole cut into a V-shape.

4.6 Other Possible Influences

4.6.1 the Vertical Flutes of Central Asia and Nabajo Flutes

Two remote cultures, those of the Turkomanians and the Navajo Indians, have flutes like ones from Southeast Asia which have long, lean bodies. These flutes typically have key holes on only the bottom half of the length of the body, unlike Chinese flutes, and are played either vertically or obliquely to the mouth.

Turkomanian flute, tuiduk . Tuiduk (figure 4.8) is a long flute with 6 key holes. The key holes are located in the lower halves of the body like most of sulings. Turkomanian flute can play g-f-e-d-c-b flat which shows the development of diatonic rather than pentatonic scale. According to Victor Belaiev, development of end -blown flutes in Central Asia describes the development of scales as well.

Figure 4.8: Players on the Turkomanian tuiduk at Merv (need source).

The four holed flutes show that tetrachords were practiced in Southeast Asia, too. The hole in the middle is the most important hole to create the octave. Somehow they figured out that a distance of 32mm between the keys creates the semitone, and 80mm creates a whole tone. The distances between the holes of te primitive wind-instruments are usually identical.

It is possible to imagine that the tonic of the scale of this sibizga (5 hole flute) is not the note obtained by closing all the holes but that given by hole IV.

This gives the scale of B flat-c-d-e flat-f. “So far as we have here a fifth from the tonic (but not from the lower note) of our scale, to that extent we may speak of we may say that a six-note scale has been invented.”

The latest version has a hole underneath which introduced the chromatic into the scale.”

The thumb hole is very important to separate European influenced flutes from Chinese flutes.

4.6.2 the 7th Century End-blown Flutes of Navajo Indians

The four complete 7th Century end-blown flutes (figure 4.9) were found in the Prayer Rock Valley, Arizona, the extreme northeastern corner of Arizona. These 6-hole flutes were laying in the graveyard for more than 1300 years.

Figure 4.9: 7th Century End-Blown Flutes (need source)

These flutes are decorated in different shapes but all had thin log tubes made out of box elder wood. The constructions of these flutes are also very similar which indicate that the tuning might be an important matter. The measurements show that four flutes are nearly as an identical as can be; the over all lengths are around 72cm, the outside diameters are 2.4 cm, and the inside diameters are exactly 2.1cm.

. When blown with all stops open, a’ is produced. When the end holes are covered one by one, g’,f’,d’,c’ sharp, c’ and b flat are sounded.

The scale construction is very close to the scale of Turkomanian flute which can play g-f-e-d-c-b flat.

The blowing end has a slight outside taper; the distal end is cut squarely across. The finger holes are cut with a smooth beveled edge. The tribes in the Southwest used the flutes for sacred purposes only. The flutes of Southeast Asian vertical bamboo flutes, tuiduk of Turkomanian flute, and the 7th century Nabajo flutes of Arizona have a common trait; they all have some space between the right and left finger holes. The flutes of these cultures are long (50~80cm), and have bigger inner nodes (1.5~2.2cm).

4.6.3 Giant End-blown Flutes of New Guinea and Kamairua Indian

Some Southeast Asian cultures locations were inhabited by Australoid people about 40 thousand years ago. About five thousand years ago, Malayo-Polynesian people started to settle in along the coasts. The people of Irian Jaya have been living at the easternmost end of Indonesia and western half of New Guinea Island.

“On the north, secret flutes occur in Jayapura and Yapen-Waropen, and the Isirawa sacred bamboo flute played by only male for initiations.”

The flutes have a rectangular notch cut in the open end. The asiinaya, tiikiire, and faafratay are all more than 1 meter long, and the length is important for the order of entrance in musical texture. They believe that if women play the instrument, storms will strike them.

The bauzi is another sacred flute played with the player’s hands cupping the mouthpiece.

The Kamairua Indians of the Amazon rain-forest keep their giant flutes, a meter or longer (3 to 4 feet), wherein spirits are believed to dwell, in a special shrine where they are worshiped. The flutes and drums of New Guinea are similarly housed and worshiped. These are people of the Amazon in Central Brazil who also do not women allow to watch or join their ceremonies with the jaqui flute, the sacred flute.

In these cultures, instrument symbolism for spirituality is highly developed and expressed with wind instruments, such as long flutes.

4.7 Multiethnic groups of China

4.7.1 Li and Hui

Most Chinese minorities are indigenous migrants who have been settled into the area for several centuries.

This melting pot of different backgrounds explains the use of exotic instruments that are not found in mainland China. “Some of the Li instruments, such as the nose flute, are not found among the Han Chinese and other ethnic groups in mainland China, showing possible links with musical instruments of Taiwan and other Pacific islands.”

The end-blown flute called ‘tsoh’ and the nose flute ‘tunkah’ are the names for a couple of the bamboo flutes found in the region.

The Li are the only indigenous people of Haninan Island in the South China Sea; the Hui are Muslim immigrants now distributed throughout China. Following two thousand years of Han domination, the majority of Li people inhabit the mountain areas in the center and south of the island.

The Li people communicate through Austro-Thai Phylum which has no written form.

Their traditional beliefs include animism, ancestor worship and shamanism.

As in other cultures, the development of music is largely influenced by the social conditions and religion of the area. The songs related to agriculture, such as slashing songs, and husking songs disappeared since their agrarian lifestyle changed during the last few decades.

The love songs are most popular for working, wedding, ritual, and children’s songs.

Animism, ancestor worship and shamanism characterize the religious beliefs of the Li people. They participate in magical dancing and singing in a recitative manner.

They kept their traditions until the communists took over Hainan in 1949. It seems like these types of dancing and instrument playing that were a part of the Li people’s everyday life are now near extinction.

Among many minority groups, certain mating musical activities and performances went extinct. “Erotic Musical Activity” is a type of folk activity that is an essential component of the local sexual customs. The performance is an overtly vocal and/or instrumental showing whose ultimate goal is lovemaking that may or may not lead to marriage.”

In Mandarin a liaofang (thatched hut) or longgui is a place for courtship and love making. An essential part of the procedure consists of singing love songs and playing instruments. These mediums of performance allow the participants to express affection for each other. Li instrumental love songs include both aerophones and idiophones, played by either males or females.

When a youth is courting a girl, he may play his instrument to announce to her that he is outside waiting for her. “A young person can always recognize his or her lover’s performance and never makes a mistake.”

The traditional bamboo flute of China exhibits the fundamental development of pitch levels and scales. The theory of the separate scales seems abstract and irrelevant, however the abstraction idea of proportions of Chinese flutes have become complex in its transmission through centuries of cultural traditions distributed over a wide geographical area. This divisive principle of scale formation allows for a plurality of scale intervals contrary to a cycle-of-fifths system which produces a unity of scale intervals related to each other by the fifth degree.”

Dividing the bamboo tube into halves creates an octave, and subdivisions of one-half of that tube into proportional segments creates four-tone scales with a variety of intervals. A placement of tones adjacent to each other in Chinese music is governed by a relationship of fifths on which the Chinese scale is built, just as adjacent tones in music with pentatonic tones built on subdivisions of the octave acquire another relationship.”

The diatonic scales were existed in ancient China as they were in Middle East and Europe. The early Chinese had simply structured flutes like in the Philippines; stops are located approximately midway along the length of the tube, on the ventral side of the tube, another stop may be played on the dorsal side of the flute, if desired. However, the Chinese continued to extensively develop the vertical flute over the centuries. The most commonly used keys for Xiao, the today’s vertical flutes, are F. And G. Usually F# is not used very often, and only for specific music or regional opera. An “F” key xiao can play the following diatonic scales: F, G, Ab, Bb, C, Eb, and F. These fifth relations between F. To C, Eb to Bb, and Ab are still important in Chinese music.

It is not clearly known but some of Central Chinese flute of ancient time could produce diatonic scales like in India and Europe. The Jiahu bone flutes are the oldest vertical flutes found in China (fig 12). The no.3 flute (fig. 13) of 6200-5800 B.C. is believed to be able to play a whole diatonic scale.

Figure 4.10: need title and source

Figure 4.11: need title and source

Unlike Chinese, Southeast Asians emphasize more on the texture of sounds than scales. The simple pentatonic scales were played on flutes with different kinds of mouth holes.

The following has been rewritten but need sourc. Info came from file sent with name: Based on Two Resources)

Instrument dissemination, according to (*Based on Two Resources) reflects the relationship that exists between two or more cultures. Whenever a musician introduces an instrument to a geographic area, different from his own, “the new instrument that develops there generally retains some connection to its predecessor: a similar name or function, a shared physical characteristic, or an association with a particular social class.

Instrument dissemination, then, reflects the relationships between cultures” (Based on Two

Resources).

Table 2 reflects a number of relationships between nine geographic areas.

Table 2: Relationships between Geographic Areas (Based on Two Resources).

Location

Flute

Religion

Socio-economic

Behavior

Religious behavior

Race

Arica

Cross, Nose

animistic mating rituals

Harvesting rituals

Africans

Middle East

Vertical

Islamic

Court music, Funerals, war

Middle Easterners

India

Cross, vertical, Nose

Animistic, Hindu

Weeding, funerals

Animistic rituals

Black-Skinned Asian

Saudi Arabia

Vertical, cylindal

Muslim

War warning funerals

Middle Easterners

Europe

Cross

Christians

Entertainment/

War/Court music

Rituals/not related Christians

Cocasion

Eastern Europe/Central Asia

vertical

Muslim, Christian

Entertainment,

Weedings

funerals

Buddhism, Christianity ceremonial music

European, Central Asians

South Asians

Cross, vertical, nose

Buddism, Hidus, Islamic,

Animistists

Court, rituals, courting, weeding, and funerals

Courting, harvesting rituals, animistic rituals

Asians, Nigritos, Pigmy people)

Native Americans

Vertical

Cross?

animism

Wedding, funerals. Group getherings

Animistic rituals

Black, Eastern European, Asian

Southeast Asians

Cross, veritical, nose

Muslim, Christian, (Buddism, Hinduism)

Courting, court music

Animistic rituals

Negritos, European, Asian, middle easterners

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

“Culture or Civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”

(Tylor, p. 1).

NOT REWRITTEN

Southeast Asian Bamboo flutes originate from different branches of cultures; they come from China, Central Asia, India, Europe, Central Asia, Saudi Arabia and Africa.

The transverse flute may have been traded to Southeast Asia during the 7th century, but Indonesia had their history of playing the side blown flutes longer than that, going as far back as the 1st century or earlier. Some flutes may also have come from Europe either through the Silk Road or the Discovery Voyage.

The vertical flutes of Southeast Asia are not exactly the invention of China alone. The end-blown flutes were also already played among the Turkistans and tribes in Central Asians before the Chinese made them the most sophisticated form. Although China is the most important country which spread the art form throughout the mainland of Southeast Asia, the vertical flute of Southeast Asia is most comparable to the flutes developed from the Islamic and Hindu cultures.

There are two theories which support the nose flutes’ existence in certain part of China, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The theory of ‘Black Current’ justifies that why Proto-Australoids in these regions wear similar costumes, worship animism, and play nose flutes. Also, a nose flute is a distinctive instrument of Pacific Islands which explains the theory of Polynesians’ migration to Southeast Asia.

The traditional bamboo flutes have been embedded in Southeast Asian culture through a lot of transitions. Southeast Asians adopted flutes from China, India, Central Asia, Africa, and Europe through traders, foreign invaders, and missionaries, and developed their flutes throughout the centuries.

Music-making is an integral part of human culture and society; as such, a study of the history of the Southeast Asian flute and its performance can play an important role not only in learning more about the development of this fascinating musical culture but also in identifying and tracking links between different cultures more broadly. In this sense, the Southeast Asian bamboo flute becomes a valuable index of cultural intermingling throughout time.

The studies on Southeast Asian bamboo flutes explicate some of cultural evidences showing that transverse, vertical, and nose flutes have their own origins.

A. Social Behavior comparison / summary of research

B. Musical elements / summary of research

C. Recommendations

Has been rewritten:

Although the researcher invested several hours searching for credible research on the bamboo flute tradition vis-a-vis, including conducting searches on Highbeam research, Questia online library, Google Books, Google search engine and Yahoo search engine, there appears to be a dearth of information on this particular subject. Information for this focus was to be included in Chapter III of the thesis.

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Color codes for Works Cited:

In works cited:

Purple highlight means reference from his thesis, chapters 1-5

Blue highlight means reference from his raw research that was sent (17 files)

Yellow highlight means that writer could not find reference; one of the 17 files received

Gray highlight means writer found this source

In thesis:

Blue highlight in footnotes means that source is not correct and could not find.

A. South Sulawesi, Indonesia

B. Ilocano, Philippines

C. Burma

D. Sumatra:

Westernmost of the Indonesia

E. Sinkiang, China

F. Turkistan

G. Ljubljana Slovenia

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I. Saudi Arabia

J. Kenya

Name Fabricated.

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Ibid.

Taylor, p.47.

Jose Maceda. Gongs & Bamboo. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.1998. p.19-20. Print.

Maceda, 1998, p.20.

Taylor, p.49.

Ibid.

Taylor, p.26

Kunst, p.25.

Adolf Veenstra, “The Classification of the Flute.” The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 17. P. 57-58. 1964.

Maceda, p.197.

Ibid.

Maceda, p.197.

Maceda, p.192.

Jose Maceda, “Upland Peoples of the Philippines.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 296. 1998.

Maceda, 1990, p.192.

Patricia Matusky.”Borneo: Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimantan,” the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 824. 1998.

Ibid, p.836.

Qia, p.486.

Ibid.

Plate #5 of Smithsonian Global Music.

Marina Roseman. “Dream Songs and Healing Sounds. In the Rainforests of Malaysia.” Smithsonian. Folkways, Inc. p. 15. 1995.

C.A. Vlieland. “The Population of the Malay Peninsula: A Study in Human Migration.” Geographical Review. Volume 24, No.1. p. 65. January 1934.

Marina Roseman. “Dream Songs and Healing Sounds. In the Rainforests o Malaysia.” Smithsonian. Folkways, Inc. p. 4. 1995.

Ivor Hugh Norman Evans. Negritos of Malaya. United Kingdom: Routledge. 1968. Print.

Roger Bench,”The worldwide distribution of the transverse flute.” Kay Williamson Educational Foundation. Cambridge, UK. P. 10. 17 Aug. 2008.

Christopher Basile and Janet Hoskins.”Nusa Tenggara Timur.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 791. 1998.

Margaret J. Kartomi. “Sulawesi.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. p. 806. 1998.

Frank Proschan. “Bamboo on the Mountains, Kmhum Highlanders.” Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. p. 3. 1999. CD.

Proschan, p.15.

Ibid.

Proschan, p. 22.

Maceda, Gongs & Bamboo, p.190.

Sulawesi, p.809.

Ibid.

Maceda, p.181.

Taylor, p.6. The word ‘Wayang’ means theatre in an Indonesian and Malay, and ‘Bayang’ means ‘sprit’ in Javanese culture.

Kunst, p.2.

Prochan, p.8-9.

Ibid, p.6.

Prochan, p.7.

Ibid, 25.

Jaap Kunst. Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments 2nd ed. Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. 1968. p.25. Print.

Kunst, p.17.

Pen-li Chuang. “Chih jih Yen-jiou.” Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology. Academia Sinica, p.139. 1965.

Alan Thrasher. “The Transverse Flutes in Traditional Chinese Music.” Asian Music. Volume 10, No.1, p. 93.

Jones, p.375.

Blench, Roger. “The Worldwide Distribution of the Transverse Flute.” Kay Williamson Educational Foundation. p. 10. 17 August 2008.

Stephen Jones. “Source and Stream: Early Music and Living Traditions in China.” Early Music. Vol. 24, No. 3, p. 375. August 1996.

Ibid.

Maceda, p.19.

Hsu Tsang-houei. “Taiwan: Music of the Taiwan Aborigines.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 527. 1998.

Mervyn Mclean. “The New Zealand Nose Flute: Fact or Fallacy? “The Galpin Society Journal. Volume 27, pp. 79-94. May 1974.

“Tongali.” World Instrument Gallery. Jan. 1999. Web. 4 January 2007.

http://www.asza.com/intongali.shtml

David Such. “The Bamboo Muse: Musical Instruments of the Kalinga.” Video from Spokane Community

College. 1999.

“Beni Sokkong, nose flute maker.” June 2007. Web. 04 January 2009. .

Ibid.

Ricardo D. Trimillow. “The Sound of a Bell: Aesthetic and world Muisc.” Music Educators Journal. Vol.69, No.9. p.45.

Maceda, p.914.

Ibid.

“Pacific Islands Report #32261.”

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank

Mervyn McLean, “The New Zealand Nose Flute; Fact or Fallacy?,” the Galpin Society Journal. Vol.27, p. 79. May, 1974.

Taylor, p.4

Maceda, Gongs & Bamboo, p.190.

Animism Oct. 2008

Patricia Matusky.”Borneo: Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimanta.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 824. 1998.

Hsu Tsang-houei, p.523.

Shen Qia. “National Minorities in China’s South and Southwest: Ethnic Groups and Musical Styles.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V, p. 496. 1998.

Ibid.

Ibid, p.729.

David Harnish. “Bali.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V, pp. 729-755. 1998.

Ibid, p.751

Bali, p.751.

Ibid, p.750.

Terry E. Miller and Sean Williams. “Sulawesi.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume 4, p. 807. 1998.

Dayak, June 2008.

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Jean Gebnan Tylor. Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Heaven and London: Yale University Press. p. 6. 2003. Print.

Tylor, p. 7.

Ibid.

Qia, p.495.

Maceda, p.913.

Hsu Tsang-houei. “Taiwan: Music of the Taiwan Aborigines.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V., p.523. 1998.

Ibid.

Hsu Tsang-houei, p.523.

Ibid.

Jones, p.375.

Google, xinjiang

Oldest musical instrument

Phong T. Nguyen. “Vietnam.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p.475. 1998.

Roger Blench, “The worldside distribution of the transverse flute.” Key Williamson Educational Foundation. p.7. August 2008.

Blench, p.12

Ibid., p.13

Peter R. Cooke, “Ludaya, a Transverse Flute from Uganda.” Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council. Vol. 3, p. 79. 1971.

Ibid.

Peter R. Cooke., p.11

Ibid, p.12.

Roger Blench, p. 12. 2008.

M.W. Hilton-Simpson. Land and Peoples of the Kasai. p. 525. 2007.

Ivor Hugh Norman Evans. Negritos of Malaya. Cambridge: UP. p. 119. 1937.

Blench, p.10

Ibid.

Mervyn Mclean, “The New Zealand Nose Flute; Fact or Fallacy?” The Galpin Society Journal. Volume 27, p. 79 May, 1974).

Mervyn Mclean, p.79

Stephen Jones, “Early Music from Around the World,” Early Music. Volume 24, No.3, p.379.

Blench, P.2

Ibid.

Blench, p.15

Blench, p.8

Ibid, p.15

Maceda, p.197

Distribution. Collaer, p.10

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Lombard, Denys 1990. Le Carrefour Javanais. II. Les reseaux asiatiques, Chapitre I. D’antiques relais maritimes, pp.16-75

Tenenbaum, David (June 2000). “Neanderthal jam.” The Why Files. University of Wisconsin, Board of Regents. Retrieved on 14 March 2006.

“Evolution of Transverse Flute,”June, 2008

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Blench, p.6

Ibid., p.7

Henny George Farme., Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical influence. Ayer Publishing. p.137. 1978.

Blench, p.7

Victor Belaiev and S.W. Pring, “The Longitudinal Open Flutes of Central Asia.” The Musical Quarterly. Vol. 19, No.1, p.85. January 1933.

Victor Belaiev, p.86

Ibid.

Victor Belaiev, p.87

B.M. Bakkegard and E.A. Morris, “Seventh Century Flutes from Arizona.” Ethnomusicology. Vol. 5, p. 185. 1961.

Ethnomusicology, p. 186. 1961.

Vida Chenoweth, Kathleen Van Arsdale, Artur Simon, “Irian Jaya Province of Indonesia.” The Garland encyclopedia of World Music. Volume V. p. 582. 1998.

Vida Chenoweth, Kathleen Van Arsdale, Artur Simon, “Irian Jaya Province of Indonesia.” The Garland encyclopedia of World Music Volume V. p. 582. 1998.

Ibid, p.583.

Hill, Jonathan. “Kamayura Flute Music: A Study of Music as Meta-Communication.” Ethnomusicology. Volume 23, no.3, pp. 417-432. September 1979.

Ibid.

Yang Mu. “Music Lost among Ethnic Minorities in China; a Comparison of the Li and Hui Peoples.” Asian Music. Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 103. (Autumn, 1995 – Winter, 1996),

Yang Mu, p.103

Ibid, p.157

Yang Mu, p.103

Ibid, p.109

Ibid. p.111

Yang Mu. “Erotic Musical Activity in multiethnic China.” Ethnomusicology. Vol. 42, p. 199. (Spring-Summer, 1998).

Yang Mu, 1998, p.204.

Ibid, p.205.

Maceda, 1990, p.192.

Ibid, p.193.

Juzhong Zhang, Xinghua Xiao, Uyn Kuen Lee, “The Early Development of Music. Analysis of the Jiahu Bone Flute.” Antiquity. Cambridge. Vol.78, p.769. Dec 2004.

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